Esta pesquisa ocupa-se em investigar, à luz da Teoria da Variação laboviana, o emprego de tepe em lugar de vibrante em onset silábico na fala da comunidade bilíngue (português-italiano) de Flores da Cunha (RS), alternância que não se verifica na fala de monolíngues-português. Utilizaram-se dados de dois bancos, VARSUL e BDSer, levantados de entrevistas realizadas em 1990 e 2009, o que possibilitou fazer um estudo em tempo real. A análise da fala de 40 informantes, 20 de cada banco, revelou um decréscimo na frequência total de aplicação da regra: 41% nos dados do VARSUL, 31% nos do BDSer, indício de regressão da regra. Na análise em tempo real, estudo de tendência, observou-se semelhança no papel favorecedor ou desfavorecedor das variáveis controladas, exceto no que diz respeito à variável Idade. O estudo de painel mostrou que os informantes diminuíram a aplicação da regra com o passar dos anos, o que contraria a expectativa de estabilidade do padrão linguístico da fala adulta. / This is a research about the use of tap where a trill is expected in Brazilian Portuguese, which does not occur in the speech of monolinguals, but can be verified in the speech of Portuguese-Italian bilinguals who live in the city of Flores da Cunha (Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil). The analysis follows the Theory of Language Variation, by William Labov. The data come from two different sources, VARSUL and BDSer data banks, which have sociolinguistic interviews recorded in 1990 and 2009. This fact enabled us to carry out a real time study. The analysis of the speech of 40 informants, 20 from each bank, showed a decrease in the total frequency of rule application: 41% in the speech of VARSUL informants, 31% in the speech of BDSer informants, a sign of rule regression. The real time analysis, tendency study, showed that the role of the variables under control has not changed along 20 years, except the role of the variable Age. The pannel study showed a decrease in rule application by the three informants studied. This goes against the expectation of a stable linguistic behavior in adult speech.

Esta pesquisa ocupa-se em investigar, à luz da Teoria da Variação laboviana, o emprego de tepe em lugar de vibrante em onset silábico na fala da comunidade bilíngue (português-italiano) de Flores da Cunha (RS), alternância que não se verifica na fala de monolíngues-português. Utilizaram-se dados de dois bancos, VARSUL e BDSer, levantados de entrevistas realizadas em 1990 e 2009, o que possibilitou fazer um estudo em tempo real. A análise da fala de 40 informantes, 20 de cada banco, revelou um decréscimo na frequência total de aplicação da regra: 41% nos dados do VARSUL, 31% nos do BDSer, indício de regressão da regra. Na análise em tempo real, estudo de tendência, observou-se semelhança no papel favorecedor ou desfavorecedor das variáveis controladas, exceto no que diz respeito à variável Idade. O estudo de painel mostrou que os informantes diminuíram a aplicação da regra com o passar dos anos, o que contraria a expectativa de estabilidade do padrão linguístico da fala adulta. / This is a research about the use of tap where a trill is expected in Brazilian Portuguese, which does not occur in the speech of monolinguals, but can be verified in the speech of Portuguese-Italian bilinguals who live in the city of Flores da Cunha (Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil). The analysis follows the Theory of Language Variation, by William Labov. The data come from two different sources, VARSUL and BDSer data banks, which have sociolinguistic interviews recorded in 1990 and 2009. This fact enabled us to carry out a real time study. The analysis of the speech of 40 informants, 20 from each bank, showed a decrease in the total frequency of rule application: 41% in the speech of VARSUL informants, 31% in the speech of BDSer informants, a sign of rule regression. The real time analysis, tendency study, showed that the role of the variables under control has not changed along 20 years, except the role of the variable Age. The pannel study showed a decrease in rule application by the three informants studied. This goes against the expectation of a stable linguistic behavior in adult speech.

O fenômeno linguístico em questão é a variação das consoantes plosivas bilabiais: o desvozeamento das plosivas vozeadas (trabalho~trapalho) e o vozeamento das plosivas desvozeadas (pudim~budim) em português, na fala de bilíngues português-alemão. A comunidade de fala sob investigação é Glória, localizado na zona rural de Estrela, uma cidade fundada por imigrantes alemães no século XIX, no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Vinte e quatro entrevistas sociolinguísticas forneceram dados para a investigação. Os dados foram analisados quantitativamente com os programas computacionais do pacote VARBRUL, versão GoldVarb X, a fim de verificar os fatores linguísticos e extralinguísticos que condicionam a realização das plosivas. A frequência total de aplicação de regra é baixa. O controle da variável idade sugere que o processo tende a desaparecer nos próximos anos. O processo é condicionado por informantes velhos, mulheres, bilíngues que realizam práticas sociais quase exclusivamente em Glória. A análise da rede social pessoal dos informantes mostrou que ela é densa e multiplexa. Apesar de sua densidade e multiplexidade, os informantes centrais na rede, idosos, não difundem a regra variável a seus contatos, jovens que trabalham e estudam em áreas urbanas, onde a aplicação da regra variável de plosivas é raro. / The linguistic phenomenon in question is the variation of the bilabial plosive consonants: the devoicing of the voiced plosives (trabalho~trapalho) and the voicing of the voiceless plosives (pudim~budim) in Portuguese, in the speech of Portuguese-German bilinguals. The speech community under investigation is Glória, located in the countryside of Estrela, a city founded by German immigrants in the XIX century in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Twenty four sociolinguistic interviews provided data for the investigation. The data were quantitatively analyzed with the computational programs of the VARBRUL package, in their GoldVarb X version, in order to verify the linguistic and extralinguistic factors which constrain the realization of the plosives. The total frequency of rule application is low. The control of variable Age suggests that the process tends to disappear in the years coming. The process is conditioned by old informants, women, bilinguals which perform social practices almost exclusively in Glória. The analysis of the personal social network of the informants showed that it is dense and multiplex. Despite of its density and multiplexity, old informants do not diffuse the variable rule to their contacts in the net, the young informants who work and study in urban areas where the application of the variable rule of plosives is rare.

Text has abstracts in English and Tshivenḓa / The purpose of this study was to investigate how language used in the past was lost with regard to pregnant women, as well as the rituals meant to be followed when a woman is pregnant until child-birth. This study compared the language use of modern times and of the past with regard to taboos during pregnancy and birth. The components that the researcher investigated embrace how a pregnant woman should handle herself, taboos that must be followed by pregnant women and the infants, fortification and procedures which follow when the ceremony of the baby is done and language development from pregnancy and child birth. In this study, the researcher applied the Critical Language Awareness (CLA), Ethnography of Communication and Ethnopragmatics models to best explain the Vhavenḓa cultural practices and discourse in relation to child-aligned language with regards to pregnancy, child-birth and anything associated with a newborn child. Regarding research design, the researcher chose qualitative-ethnography research design because it is more exploratory as it deals with human beings and the environment in which they live. A qualitative research method was utilised in this study. The population was Vhavenḓa elderly women who are knowledgeable about taboos pertaining to pregnancy and childbirth. In this study, purposive and snowball sampling techniques were appropriate since the researcher used her judgement to and snowball sampling were used to sample information from people who have knowledge of the Tshivenḓa language and culture to establish if there is a difference between the language used today and that used in the past. On the subject of data collection tools, the researcher collected qualitative primary data with the aid of interviews and interviews from the social groups including youth, elders, nurses and doctors from various natural research settings in the Vhembe District. Ultimately, the researcher identified various themes and concepts which emanated from the data collection process in line with analytical comparison methods, namely, method of agreement and method of difference. From the research, it was discovered that the Tshivenḓa culture is being undermined and the Western culture is being preferred in modern times. These changes came about when Western and Christian ways of doing things were v followed and African customs were abandoned. Furthermore, this research uncovered that the Tshivenḓa language is being lost while looking at the period from pregnancy until the birth of a child into the world. Most importantly, this research brought forth the knowledge of language used in pregnancy that has been lost; including medicines that are no longer used for purposes of curing during pregnancy, child-birth and the raising of a newborn. / Ngudo ino yo ḓitika kha u sengulusa uri luambo zwe lwa vha lu tshi shumiswa zwone kale lwo ngalangala zwo livhiswa kha muimana u swika a tshi vhofholowa. Musi i tshi ya phanḓa, ṱhoḓisiso iyi i sedza luambo lwa zwiilaila uri ndi luambo lune lu kha ḓivha lune lwa dzhielwa nṱha na musi ho sedzwa ho sedzwa vhuimana na mbebo. Zwine muṱoḓisisi a khou ṱoḓulusa zwone zwi katela zwi tevhelaho: muimana u ḓifarisa hani, zwiilaila zwine zwa tea u tevhedzwa nga muimana na lutshetshe, muthuso na nḓila ine ya tevhelwa musi hu tshi khou itwa vhuṱambo na u sedza luambo lwa muimana lune lwa shumiswa u swikela kha lutshetshe. Kha ṱhoḓisiso iyi muṱoḓisisi o shumisa mutheo wa thyiori dzi tevhelaho: Critical Language Awareness, Ethnography of Communication na Ethnopragmatics u ṱalusa kushumisele kwa mvelele ya Vhavenḓa na luambo malugana na luambo lwa zwilaila, lutshetshe na zwiṅwe zwine zwa elana na u vhofholowa. U ya nga ha tshivhumbeo tsha ṱhoḓisiso na nḓila ya u ṱhoḓisisa muṱoḓisisi o nanga u shumisa ngona ya khwaḽithithethivi nga uri o vha a tshi khou sedzesa kha vhathu na hune vha vha vhe hone. Zwiṱoḓuluswa zwa ṱhoḓisiso iyi ndi vhathu vhahulwane vha Vhavenḓa vhane vha vha na ndivho ya vhuilaila malugana vhuimana na, u vhofholowa. Kha ngudo iyi purposive na snowball sampling techniques hune yo tea u bva muṱoḓisisi o shumisa ndila yawe ya u nanguludza sambula a dovha hafhu a shumisa u vhudzisa muvhudziswa ngae u wana munwe. Kha ndivho ya zwishumiswa zwa u kuvhanganya mafhungo, muṱoḓisisi o kuvhanganya mafhungo o shumisa khwalithithethivi kha tshi khou thusiwa nga ithaviiyu na ithaviuyu u bva kha zwigwada zwo fhambanaho sa vhaswa, vhaluwa, manese na madokotela u bva fhethu ho fhambanaho vhuponi ha ḽiisela ḽa Vhembe. Muṱoḓisisi o topola ndivho na mihumbulo ine ya bva kha mafhungo e a kuvhanganywa ho shumiswa maitele a Analytical Comparison Method ine ya shumisa: Method of agreement na Method of difference.. U bva kha ṱhoḓisiso ho wanala uri mvelele ya Tshivenḓa i khou dzhielwa fhasi, ha dzhielwa ntha mvelele ya vhukovhela . Tshanduko iyi ndi ine yo ḓiswa nga nḓila ine Vhukovhela na vhutendi ha Tshikrisite zwa tshimbidzwa ngayo musi vha tshi tevhedzela maitele a Tshirema. U inga kha izwo, ṱhoḓisiso iyi yo bula uri luambo lwa Tshivenḓa lwo ngalangala musi ro sedza kha muimana u swikela a tshi vhofholowa.Tsha vhuṱhogwa, ṱhoḓisiso iyi yo ḓisa nḓivho ya luambo lune lwa shumiswa kha vhuimana uri lwo ngalangala zwo katela na miuluso ine ya shumiswa kha vhuimani, ṅwana a tshi bebiwa na u alusa lutshetshe. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Languages, Linguistics and Literature)

本文調查年輕世代 (1988 至 1995 年間出生者) 閩南語的變調範域 (Tone Sandhi Domain)，即調群 (Tone Group)。文中以「傳統調群」表文獻記載的變調範域，以「新調群」表本文重新調查的變調範域。論文的研究立基於音韻句法互動之上，並持間接指涉假設觀點，從韻律音韻學的角度出發，認為句法音韻間存有一韻律介面，且調群為此介面上的韻律單位：音韻詞組 (Phonological Phrase, ϕ)。 本文發現新調群與傳統調群的劃分相異。前人研究指出，調群邊界 (#) 標於音韻詞組右端，音韻詞組為一最大投射 XP，且不可為附加語及附著語。新調群僅部分可以傳統音韻詞組界定，其他則對應至句法上的主要語 X，以及附加語最大投射 XP。此外，新調群的邊界為選擇性地出現，具語言變異。新調群出現四種於傳統調群未見的劃分形式：依調群邊界前的語法單位分為主要語 X 類別：(1) V # NP # (2) V # QP # 及附加語 XP 類別： (3) QP # A # (4) AdvP # V #。 本文提出調群新定義，並以優選理論中的 ROE 模型進行分析，提出三個新制約：Align-R (XP-Fnc, ϕ)、ϕ-min 及 Align-R (X-head, ϕ)。Align-R (XP-Fnc, ϕ) 用以區分功能性投射與詞彙性投射；ϕ-min 限制音韻詞組至少含兩音節；Align-R (X-head, ϕ) 解釋調群邊界標註於主要語 X 右端。分析時著重制約 Align-R (XP-Fnc, ϕ) 、ϕ-min 及 Align-R (X-head, ϕ) 與切分線 | (Critical Cut-Off Line) 的關係。整體制約排序為：Ident-T-Rϕ | Align-R (XP-Fnc, ϕ) >> ϕ-min >> Align-R (X-head, ϕ) >> *T >> Align-R (XP-Lex, ϕ)。除信實性制約 Ident-T-Rϕ 之外，其他標記性制約皆列於切分線之下，預測語言變異。 / The goal of this thesis is to explore the tone sandhi domain, tone group (hereafter, TG), of Taiwan Southern Min of younger generation. A corpus is built and analyzed within the framework of Prosodic Theory, a derived theory from the Phonology-Syntax Interface Theory. In the literature, TG boundary # was marked at the right edge of an XP which is neither an adjunct nor a clitic. However, the TG boundary # of younger generation is marked at the right edges of a maximal XP, an adjunctive XP and an X-head. Moreover, language variation is observed in the TG parsing: the presence of TG boundary # is optional. There are four TG parsings not observed in the literature: (1) V # NP # (2) V # QP # (3) QP # A # (4) AdvP # V #. TG is redefined as a Phonological Phrase which syntactically corresponds to a maximal XP, an adjunct XP, an X-head but not to a clitic XP. The four TG parsings are then analyzed with Rank-Ordering Model of EVAL (ROE), a subtheory within the Optimality Theory domain which particularly addresses language variation. According to ROE, constraints on the right side of critical cut-off line participate in the prediction of variation. Three constraints involving in variation are proposed: Align-R (XP-Fnc, ϕ), ϕ-min and Align-R (X-head, ϕ). Align-R (XP-Fnc, ϕ) distinguishes lexical projection and functional projection, ϕ-min requires a Phonological Phrase to be minimally disyllabic, and Align-R (X-head, ϕ) predicts # to occur at the right edge of an X-head. The analysis centers around the three constraints’ relation with the critical cut-off line. The constraint rankings are: Ident-T-Rϕ | Align-R (XP-Fnc, ϕ) >> ϕ-min >> Align-R (X-head, ϕ) >> *T >> Align-R (XP-Lex, ϕ). Except for the faithfulness constraint Ident-T-Rϕ, the other markedness constraints are arranged at the right side of the cut-off line in order to predict language variation.

Cette thèse a été financée par le Conseil de recherches en sciences humaines du Canada (numéro de référence 767-2010-1310) / Dans le cadre de la théorie de l’accommodation communicative, ce travail consiste à évaluer, avec la méthodologie de la sociolinguistique comparative, dans quelle mesure les immigrants hispanophones des Andes boliviennes qui se sont établis à San Pedro de Atacama (Chili) accommodent leur langage aux hispanophones de ce pays. Pour ce faire, quatre traits grammaticaux caractéristiques de l’espagnol andin ont été choisis pour être analysés : l’usage du double possessif (e. g., He ido a su casa de mi marido), l’utilisation des adverbes de lieu comme particule finale de la préposition en (e. g., Entonces he vivido en allá así como diez años), la préférence du passé composé sur le passé simple pour exprimer des actions qui ont été accomplies dans le passé (e. g., El año pasado he ido a visitar a mi madre) et l’usage exclusif de formes verbales standard pour exprimer la deuxième personne du singulier (e. g., Tú puedes estar comiendo tu hamburguesa). Les résultats obtenus après avoir analysé statistiquement la variation dans les données empiriques qui ont été recueillies au moyen d’entrevues révèlent que, tandis que ces immigrants conservent l’usage du double possessif et l’utilisation des adverbes de lieu comme particule finale de la préposition en de manière pratiquement inchangée par rapport à un groupe de contrôle de Boliviens non-immigrants (c’est ce que l’on entend par « divergence »), ils substituent graduellement la préférence du passé composé sur le passé simple pour exprimer des actions qui ont été accomplies dans le passé par une prédilection du passé simple sur le passé composé (e. g., Esta mañana fui a la playa) et intègrent progressivement l’alternance entre les formes verbales standard et les formes verbales vernaculaires du voseo pour exprimer la deuxième personne du singulier (e. g., Cuando tú flotái… y no te sumerges hacia adentro), à l’instar de ce qui se fait dans l’espagnol parlé au Chili (c’est ce que l’on entend par « convergence »). En d’autres termes, on peut affirmer qu’ils incorporent de nouvelles ressources linguistiques dans leur langage, en même temps qu’ils en conservent d’autres sans modifications significatives. On remarque donc que le contact dialectal provoqué par l’immigration bolivienne au Chili a des conséquences linguistiques indéniables qui font ressortir le dynamisme de la langue. En effet, le fait que ces immigrants adoptent de nouvelles ressources linguistiques tandis qu’ils en gardent d’autres sans changements notables met en évidence que les processus de convergence et divergence dialectales ne sont pas exclusifs, mais plutôt inclusifs, c’est-à-dire qu’ils peuvent avoir lieu simultanément au sein de la même communauté linguistique. Enfin, le fait que ces immigrants parlent désormais un dialecte qui n’est équivalent ni au dialecte d’origine ni au dialecte du lieu d’accueil permet d’avancer qu’ils parlent une sorte de dialecte nouveau. / Within the framework of the communication accommodation theory, the present study evaluates the extent to which Spanish-speaking migrants from the Bolivian Andes to San Pedro de Atacama (Chile) accommodate their speech to Chilean Spanish, using a comparative sociolinguistics methodology. Four distinctive grammatical features of Andean Spanish were selected for the analysis: the use of the double possessive adjectives (e.g. He ido a su casa de mi marido), the use of adverbs of place as adjuncts of the Spanish preposition en (e.g. Entonces he vivido en allá así como diez años), the preference for the present perfect over the simple past to express the perfective aspect (e.g. El año pasado he ido a visitar a mi madre), and the exclusive use of standard verbal forms to express the second person singular (e.g. Tú puedes estar comiendo tu hamburguesa). Results were obtained from a statistical analysis of variation in the empirical data, which were collected through interviews, and compared with a non-migrant Bolivian control group. The data reveal that, while these migrants maintain a practically unaltered use of both the double possessive adjectives and the adverbs of place as adjuncts of the Spanish preposition en (this is understood as “divergence”), they gradually develop a preference for the present perfect over the simple past to express the perfective aspect by a predilection for the simple past over the present perfect (e.g. Esta mañana fui a la playa), and they progressively adopt an alternation between standard forms and vernacular ones (i.e. voseo) to express the second person singular (e.g. Cuando tu flotái… y no te sumerges hacia adentro), as occurs in Chilean Spanish (this is understood as “convergence”). In other words, the migrants have incorporated new linguistic resources into their speech, while they have simultaneously maintained others without any significant change. The dialect contact situation caused by migrants from the Bolivian Andes to Chile, therefore, has undeniable linguistic consequences, which bring out the dynamic character of the language. Indeed, the fact that these migrants integrate new linguistic resources into their speech while simultaneously maintaining others without serious changes highlights that the processes of dialectal convergence and divergence are not exclusive, but rather inclusive. That is, they can occur simultaneously within the same linguistic community. In conclusion, the fact that these migrants henceforth speak a dialect that is equivalent neither to their original dialect nor to the host dialect supports the claim that they speak a kind of new dialect. / Dentro del marco de la teoría de la acomodación en la comunicación, este trabajo consiste en evaluar en qué medida los inmigrantes hispanohablantes de los Andes bolivianos establecidos en San Pedro de Atacama (Chile) acomodan su habla a la de los hispanohablantes de este país, recurriendo a la metodología de la sociolingüística comparativa. Para ello, se seleccionaron para análisis cuatro marcas gramaticales del español de los Andes: el uso del posesivo doblado (e. g., He ido a su casa de mi marido), la utilización de los adverbios demostrativos de lugar como términos de la preposición en (e. g., Entonces he vivido en allá así como diez años), la preferencia del pretérito perfecto sobre el pretérito indefinido para expresar el aspecto perfectivo (e. g., El año pasado he ido a visitar a mi madre) y el uso exclusivo de las formas verbales del tuteo para referir a la segunda persona del singular (e. g., Tú puedes estar comiendo tu hamburguesa). Los resultados, que se obtuvieron después de haber analizado estadísticamente la variación en los datos empíricos que se recogieron mediante entrevistas, revelan que mientras que estos inmigrantes mantienen el uso del posesivo doblado y la utilización de los adverbios demostrativos de lugar como términos de la preposición en sin cambios aparentes con respecto a un grupo de control constituido por bolivianos que no han emigrado de la zona andina (esto es lo que se entiende por “divergencia”), sustituyen gradualmente la preferencia por el pretérito perfecto frente al indefinido para expresar el aspecto perfectivo por una predilección del pretérito indefinido sobre el perfecto (e. g., Esta mañana fui a la playa), e integran progresivamente la alternancia entre las formas verbales tuteantes y las formas verbales del voseo para referir a la segunda persona del singular (e. g., Cuando tú flotái… y no te sumerges hacia adentro), a la manera de lo que se hace en el español chileno (esto es lo que se entiende por “convergencia”). En otras palabras, se puede afirmar que estos inmigrantes incorporan nuevos recursos lingüísticos en su habla al mismo tiempo que mantienen otros sin modificaciones significativas. Así, pues, se puede considerar que el contacto dialectal provocado por la inmigración boliviana en Chile tiene consecuencias lingüísticas innegables que resaltan el dinamismo de la lengua. Efectivamente, el hecho de que estos inmigrantes adopten nuevos recursos lingüísticos mientras que mantienen otros sin cambios notables pone de manifiesto que los procesos de convergencia y divergencia dialectales no son exclusivos, sino que son más bien inclusivos, es decir, pueden acaecer simultáneamente en el seno de una misma comunidad lingüística. Por último, el hecho de que estos inmigrantes hablen ahora un dialecto que no es equivalente ni al dialecto original ni al dialecto del lugar de acogida permite postular que utilizan una suerte de dialecto nuevo.

O presente trabalho propõe uma estratégia de tradução para Táxi baseada principalmente na abordagem cultural da tradução em busca de reproduzir o contraste entre árabe padrão e dialeto presente no original. Táxi, do egípcio Khalid al-Khamissi, traz pequenas histórias (addtas) que retratam conversas do autor/personagem com taxistas das ruas do Cairo, nas quais os mais diversos aspectos socioculturais são abordados. Para tratar desse tópico o autor escolheu um recurso linguístico que ainda gera polêmica na prosa árabe: todos os diálogos, que compõem a maior parte da obra, estão em dialeto árabe enquanto as partes narrativas estão em árabe padrão. Esse contraste, que deriva naturalmente da situação de diglossia presente nas comunidades falantes de árabe, cria um efeito de oralidade, bem como é relevante para a lógica interna da narrativa. Assim, a proposta de tradução apresentada considerou a natureza da composição da obra, o momento histórico e o funcionamento da diglossia no Egito para buscar no português recursos para reproduzir os efeitos relevantes dessa alternância sem comprometer a representação da cultura egípcia. Para estabelecer os possíveis recursos no português foram utilizadas principalmente pesquisas do NURC/SP. / This masters dissertation proposes a strategy to translate the book Taxi to Portuguese based specially on the cultural approach to translation. The strategy aims at the reproduction of the contrast of standard Arabic and Egyptian dialect verified in the original. The book Taxi by the Egyptian author Khalid al-Khamissi, is composed by short stories (addtas) that depict conversations between the author (as a character) and taxi drivers working on the streets of Cairo. Considering that different social and cultural aspects are explored in these dialogues, the author chose a linguistic procedure that is still source of polemic in the Arabic prose studies: all the dialogues, which constitute the most part of the work, were written in Egyptian dialect, while the typical standard Arabic was used for the narrative. This contrast, which is a reflex of the presence of diglossia in the Arabic speaking communities, creates an effect of oral text, as well as is relevant for the internal logic of the narrative. Thus, the translation proposed has considered the nature of the composition, the historical moment and the way diglossia works in Egypt with the aim of reproducing the relevant effects created by the linguistic alternation of the original without compromising the depiction of the Egyptian culture. In order to stablish the possible resources present in the Portuguese language, the linguistic works from NURC/SP (studies on Educated Urban Norm of São Paulo) were specially consulted.

This project uses corpus linguistics and geostatistics to test the sociolinguistic typological theory put forward by Peter Trudgill on the history of Norwegian. The theory includes several effects of societal factors on language change. Most discussed is the proposal that ‘intensive’ language contact causes simplification of language grammar. In the Norwegian case, the claim is that simplificatory changes which affected all of the Continental North Germanic languages (Danish, Swedish, Norwegian) but not the Insular North Germanic Languages were the result of contact with Middle Low German through the Hanseatic League. This suggests that those simplificatory changes arose in the centres of contact with the Hanseatic League: cities with Hansa trading posts and kontors. The size of the dataset required would have made it impossible for previous scholars to test this prediction, but digital approaches render the problem tractable. I have designed a 3.5m word corpus containing nearly all extant Middle Norwegian, and developed statistical methods for examining the spread of language phenomena in time and space. The project is made up of a series of case studies of changes. Three examine simplifying phonological changes: the rise of svarabhakti (epenthetic) vowels, the change of /hv/ > /kv/ and the loss of the voiceless dental fricative. A further three look at simplifying morphological changes: the loss of 1.sg. verbal agreement, the loss of lexical genitives and the loss of 1.pl. verbal agreement. In each case study a large dataset from many documents is collected and used to map the progression of the change in space and time. The social background of document signatories is also used to map the progression of the change through different social groups. A variety of different patterns emerge for the different changes examined. Some changes spread by contagious diffusion, but many spread by hierarchical diffusion, jumping first between cities before spreading to the country at large. One common theme which runs through much of the findings is that dialect contact within the North Germanic language area seems to have played a major role: many of the different simplificatory changes may first have spread into Norwegian from Swedish or Danish. Although these findings do not exactly match the simple predictions originally proposed from the sociolinguistic typological theory, they are potentially consistent with a more nuanced account in which the major centres of contact and so simplifying change were in Sweden and Denmark rather than Norway.

This study is in the area of terminology activities in Zimbabwe and it analyses the term creation used in the following selected specialised terms dictionaries: Duramazwi Reurapi Neutano (Dictionary of Biomedical Terms), Duramazwi Remimhanzi (Dictionary of Shona Musical Terms), and Duramazwi Redudziramutauro NeUvaranomwe (Dictionary of Shona Linguistic and Literature Terms). The study specifically analyses and explores how terminographers together with health, music, language and literature specialists made use of their term creation skills and strategies in the creation of new specialised terms for the field of music, health and linguistics. In addition, this research takes into account the impact of factors such as culture, socio- economic, etymological purity, attitudes of the target users, language policy, as well as availability of resourceson term creation. Hence, term creation is an exercise that involves many aspects and interlinked factors. This research advances the argument that while some term creation strategies (compounding, coining and derivation) can be adequate and appropriate, however, at times; they are some which result in created terms that are rather cumbersome, vague, artificial, and difficult to master and remember. In addition, this study found out that some term creation strategies (semantic expansion and loan translations) are unproductive; that means they do not add any value on the Shona language vocabulary. Moreover, the borrowing term creation strategy was analysed on the basis of whether it is promoting and elevating the Shona language or is it undermining its value and vitality. This study emphasises the need for a collaborative approach to term creation, with terminologists, linguists, subject area specialists and target language users during the different phases of word formation processes for the collective ownership of the created term and their acceptability to the target users. This study highlights that, through good term creation strategies the Shona Language can significantly contribute to the promotion and development of Shona language in Zimbabwe. Overally, the research yields a substantial amount of information in the terminological formation processes as well as the identification of factors that can be used to improve term creation strategies in order to develop indigenous languages for use in all spheres of life.The major contribution of this study is the identification and highlighting of the major strength and weaknesses of term creation strategies as a way of developing indigenous languages. The useful findings in this study will benefit the indigenous language development and language policy planners and terminologists in Zimbabwe and other African languages in similar situations. The significant amount of information about term creation that was used in the analysis of term creation in the three dictionaries was solicited from questionnaires and interviews that were carried out with linguists, the specialised dictionary compilers, music students, medical students and high school students doing Shona language and literature subject in Zimbabwe. More information on the term creation was done through content analysis of the three specialised dictionaries and the present researcher’s own experiences as a former Shona high school teacher, linguist and above all as a Shona language speaker. / African Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

O presente trabalho propõe uma estratégia de tradução para Táxi baseada principalmente na abordagem cultural da tradução em busca de reproduzir o contraste entre árabe padrão e dialeto presente no original. Táxi, do egípcio Khalid al-Khamissi, traz pequenas histórias (addtas) que retratam conversas do autor/personagem com taxistas das ruas do Cairo, nas quais os mais diversos aspectos socioculturais são abordados. Para tratar desse tópico o autor escolheu um recurso linguístico que ainda gera polêmica na prosa árabe: todos os diálogos, que compõem a maior parte da obra, estão em dialeto árabe enquanto as partes narrativas estão em árabe padrão. Esse contraste, que deriva naturalmente da situação de diglossia presente nas comunidades falantes de árabe, cria um efeito de oralidade, bem como é relevante para a lógica interna da narrativa. Assim, a proposta de tradução apresentada considerou a natureza da composição da obra, o momento histórico e o funcionamento da diglossia no Egito para buscar no português recursos para reproduzir os efeitos relevantes dessa alternância sem comprometer a representação da cultura egípcia. Para estabelecer os possíveis recursos no português foram utilizadas principalmente pesquisas do NURC/SP. / This masters dissertation proposes a strategy to translate the book Taxi to Portuguese based specially on the cultural approach to translation. The strategy aims at the reproduction of the contrast of standard Arabic and Egyptian dialect verified in the original. The book Taxi by the Egyptian author Khalid al-Khamissi, is composed by short stories (addtas) that depict conversations between the author (as a character) and taxi drivers working on the streets of Cairo. Considering that different social and cultural aspects are explored in these dialogues, the author chose a linguistic procedure that is still source of polemic in the Arabic prose studies: all the dialogues, which constitute the most part of the work, were written in Egyptian dialect, while the typical standard Arabic was used for the narrative. This contrast, which is a reflex of the presence of diglossia in the Arabic speaking communities, creates an effect of oral text, as well as is relevant for the internal logic of the narrative. Thus, the translation proposed has considered the nature of the composition, the historical moment and the way diglossia works in Egypt with the aim of reproducing the relevant effects created by the linguistic alternation of the original without compromising the depiction of the Egyptian culture. In order to stablish the possible resources present in the Portuguese language, the linguistic works from NURC/SP (studies on Educated Urban Norm of São Paulo) were specially consulted.