Text in Afrikaans / Summaries in English and Afrikaans / Die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika en die Wet op Arbeidsverhoudinge verleen aan werknemers die reg om te staak. Die reg is egter nie onbeperk nie. Op grond van die voldoening aan wetlike vereistes, word stakings as beskermd of onbeskermd geklassifiseer. Beskermde stakers kan ontslaan word weens wangedrag tydens die staking of op grond van die bedryfsvereistes van die werkgewer. Die werkgewer se bedryfsvereistes sal ontslag regverdig indien sy /haar vlak van toleransie bereik is. Dit sal die geval wees indien die werkgewer se besigheid met ondergang gedreig word of onherroeplike skade gaan ly, sou die staking voortduur. Aile relevante faktore moet egter in ag geneem word. Daar is nie tans 'n vasgestelde toets in die verband nie en daar word ook aan die hand gedoen dat billikheid, met inagneming van al die relevante faktore en omstandighede, die belangrikste oorweging moet wees. 'n Vasgestelde toets vir die bepaling van die werkgewer se vlak van toleransie, word afgekeur. / The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa and the Labour Relations Act give employees the right to strike. This right is, however, not unlimited. By reason of the satisfaction of statutory requirements, strikes are classified as protected or unprotected. Protected strikers may be dismissed for misconduct during the strike or by reason of the operational requirements of the employer. The employer's operational requirements will justify dismissal when his/her level of tolerance is reached. This will be the case when the employer's business is on the brink of extinction or about to suffer irreparable harm. All the relevant facts must however be taken into account. Currently there is no definite test in this regard and it is proposed that fairness, taking into account all the relevant facts and circumstances, be the overriding consideration. A specific test for the determination of the employer's level of tolerance must be rejected. / Economics and Management Sciences / LL.M.

La procédure pénale française se caractérise par le pouvoir de contrainte probatoire accordé aux autorités chargées de la recherche de la vérité. Celui-ci a fait l’objet d’une activité législative importante au cours de ces quarante dernières années marquée tant par une multiplication des mesures que par un renforcement progressif de leur encadrement. Cette succession des réformes législatives, dont le rythme s’est accéléré depuis le début du XXIe siècle, souligne la difficulté de trouver un équilibre satisfaisant entre, d’une part, l’efficacité de la recherche de la vérité et, d’autre part, l’effectivité des prérogatives accordées à l’individu. La recherche d’un tel équilibre conduit à s’interroger sur l’encadrement de la contrainte probatoire en s’extrayant des classifications traditionnelles des diverses mesures. Une approche historique des prérogatives accordées à l’homme permet de déterminer les droits et principes constituant aujourd’hui cet encadrement. En effet, la Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen de 1789 appréhende l’individu en tant que citoyen dans ses relations avec l’Etat. Le respect de la liberté individuelle est dès lors mis en exergue. A ce titre, la création des mesures de contrainte ne peut être arbitraire et leur mise en œuvre doit être raisonnable. A l’issue de la Seconde guerre mondiale, l’individu n’est plus envisagé seulement comme un citoyen mais également comme un membre de l’humanité. L’effectivité de sa dignité et du respect de ses droits, en particulier, de son droit à un procès équitable, complètent en conséquence l’encadrement de la contrainte probatoire. / The main feature of French criminal procedure is the coercitive power attributed to the authorities in charge of seeking the truth. Over the last forty years, the number of statutes relating to this coercitive power largely increased, reinforcing the boundaries of its legal framework. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the path of statutes enactments increased suggesting that there is difficulty in finding the right balance between the efficiency in the truth seeking and the effectiveness of individuals’ rights. Defining the right balance suggests to analyze the coercitive power’s legal framework without relying on the classical legal categories. An historical approach of the individuals’ rights allows us to identify the legal and theoretical framework of the said coercitive power. Indeed, the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen considers the individual as a citizen relating to the State. The respect of individual freedom is the core of the Declaration, preventing arbitrary coercitive measures and an unreasonable use of the coercitive power. After Second World War, the individual has not been considered only as a citizen, but also as a member of Mankind. Accordingly, the respect of individuals’ dignity and rights, especially the right to a fair trial has reinforced the coercitive power’s legal framework.

Toute économie ainsi que toute science a pour mission d’atteindre un certain progrès dans son domaine. Or si nous pouvons tous être d’accord sur ce point, nous ne partageons pas forcément la même définition du progrès. Pour élucider cette divergence de compréhension, nous avons pris le parti d’adhérer à une distinction entre éthique et morale : là où tout ordre moral consiste à ordonner les éléments d’un cadre déterminé pour une fin donnée, une posture éthique consiste à adopter et à adapter un principe faisant autorité pour découvrir un environnement alors inconnu. Nous avançons alors que le domaine de l’économie ainsi que toute idée de progrès ne peuvent être rattachés qu’à un ordre moral et non à une posture éthique. Pour illustrer ces propos, nous menons une réflexion sur la question de l’identité, notion certes vide et idéologique mais qui permet tout de même, couplée avec la distinction entre éthique et morale, de nous concentrer notamment sur les notions d’Etat, de personne ou encore de pouvoir. Ces réflexions nous éclairent sur certains fondements de l’économie et sur la philosophie utilitariste, philosophie avant tout liée au langage et de ce fait à la notion d’identité une fois encore ; utilitarisme et économie seraient en un sens déterministes, nous permettant d’accéder à un bonheur identifiable et vers lequel nous pourrions progresser. Ainsi nous avançons que le progrès ne peut qu’être conçu à partir d’un ordre moral et qu’il faille plutôt rechercher un certain équilibre pour que la dimension éthique puisse être elle aussi cultivée, au même titre que la catallaxie puisse être encouragée au côté de l’économie. / Every economics or science has to reach some progress in its field. But, if we can agree on this point, we do not necessarily share the same definition of progress. To clarify this divergence of understanding, we have chosen to distinguish between ethics and morals: if a moral order permits to order elements in a determined frame for a specific goal, an ethical posture means to adopt and to adapt an authoritative principle for the discovery of an unknown environment. We advance that the economic field and the idea of progress can only be associated with a moral order and not with an ethical posture. To illustrate that, we conduct a reflection about identity, which is an empty and ideological notion but which allows us, along the distinction between ethics and morals, to focus especially on notions like State, person or power. These reflections can enlighten us about some foundations of economics and utilitarianism which is a philosophy deeply related to language and then with the notion of identity once again; utilitarianism and economics are in a certain way playing a defining role, allowing us to reach a well-being which we can identify and to which we can progress. Thereby, we are advancing that the progress can only be conceived from a moral order and that we should search a kind of equilibrium to let the ethical dimension be cultivated, as well as to encourage catallaxy outre economics.

Les raisons impérieuses d’intérêt général en droit de l’Union européenne sont des intérêts permettant la justification de restrictions aux différentes libertés de circulation. Ces raisons impérieuses sont donc un mode de justification. Un mode de justification essentiellement prétorien car c’est la Cour de justice qui l’a théorisé. Elle a instauré ces raisons dans l’arrêt Cassis de Dijon, étendu leur application à toutes les libertés de circulation et encadré cette application. Ainsi, ces raisons impérieuses sont soumises à la volonté de la Cour et à ses incertitudes. Par conséquent, si la jurisprudence est incertaine concernant les intérêts qualifiés de raisons impérieuses d’intérêt général voire contradictoire à propos des conditions liées aux raisons impérieuses, les raisons impérieuses d’intérêt général sont un mode de justification par essence prétorien. D’ailleurs, si certains textes de droit de l’Union européenne reprennent la théorie élaborée par la Cour de justice, ils restent vraiment fidèles à la jurisprudence. Ces textes, aussi bien de droit primaire que de droit dérivé, reprennent des éléments essentiels de la théorie des raisons impérieuses d’intérêt général et notamment les conditions élaborées par la Cour. Ces textes copient aussi les imperfections prétoriennes concernant la théorie des raisons impérieuses. On va même jusqu’à avoir une frontière entre les raisons impérieuses et les autres modes de justification tout aussi floue dans les textes que dans la jurisprudence de la Cour. Ainsi, malgré la reprise de la théorie des raisons impérieuses dans des textes, ce mode de justification reste par essence jurisprudentiel. / The mandatory requirements in the European Union law are reasons who can justify restrictions to the differents freedom of movements. So, those mandatory requirements are a justification method. An essentially jurisprudential justification method because it is the Court of justice who theorized it. It established thoses reasons in the Cassis de Dijon case, extended their application to every free movements and regulated their application. So, those mandatory requirements are also subject to the will of the Court and to its uncertainties. Therefore, if the jurisprudence is uncertain about interests named as mandatory requirements and even conflicting about its conditions, the mandatory requirements are an essentially jurisprudential justification method. Although, if some European Union law texts resume the jurisprudential made theory, they are truly loyal to the jurisprudence. Those texts, both primary and secondary law, pick up essential elements of the theory, in particular the conditions created by the Court. But those texts also copy the Courts imperfections about the theory. They even have a border between mandatory requirements and other justification methods equally blurred in the texts and in the jurisprudence. Thus, despite the retake of the theory of mandatory requirements in texts, this justification method stays essentially jurisprudential.

A infância e a adolescência são consideradas fases que envolvem uma série de transformações entre as quais merecem destaque o crescimento físico e desenvolvimento acelerados que são determinantes de uma maior demanda de energia e nutrientes. É fundamental que os indivíduos adotem alimentação balanceada no tocante à energia e nutrientes para que as mudanças na composição corporal e maturação sexual, entre outras demandas, sejam asseguradas. Entre os objetivos principais da pesquisa destacam-se a análise do estado nutricional, consumo de energia e nutrientes e a participação dos macronutrientes na dieta de amostra de 1325 escolares, matriculados em vinte unidades de ensino de dez municípios brasileiros. Os dados referentes ao consumo de alimentos foram obtidos por meio da adoção do método Recordatório 24- horas. Para a elaboração das análises nutricionais foi utilizado o software Virtual Nutri (Philippi et al., 1996). Os resultados revelam ingestão média de energia (1503,4 kcal) que pode ser considerada menor que à recomendação definida para os alunos do grupo etário da amostra. Quando se analisou a situação dos escolares, de acordo com a participação dos macronutrientes no Valor Energético Total da Dieta - VET, observouse que, de forma geral, a maioria (55%) adota dieta inadequada, sendo que as situações mais desfavoráveis atingem os estudantes dos municípios das Regiões Nordeste (Parnaíba e Brasileira) e Norte (Abaetetuba e Tailândia). Situação inversa foi identificada no tocante às dietas dos escolares de Joinville-SC (71,3% do grupo adotavam dietas adequadas). A análise do estado nutricional revelou que é nula a prevalência de baixo peso entre os alunos da totalidade das vinte escolas integrantes da pesquisa. De foram geral a maioria (cerca de 92,6%) foi classificada como eutrófica e proporção de escolares próxima à esperada identificada com sobrepeso. No entanto, nos municípios da Região Sul, os resultados distinguem-se pela superioridade da prevalência de sobrepeso em relação aos demais: proporções de escolares (14,7%) de Joinville e 16,3%, em Ponte Serrada foram diagnosticados com excesso de peso. Note-se que os referidos percentuais são praticamente três vezes maiores quando comparados à proporção observada (5%) em populações considerado de referência. Quanto ao consumo de minerais, merece atenção a reduzida ingestão de cálcio (a maioria dos escolares não ingeriu 50% do valor preconizado). O consumo (médio) de praticamente a totalidade das vitaminas selecionadas pode ser considerado relativamente mais favorável, exceto quando se verifica, entre os alunos a baixa ingestão de folacina e ácido pantotênico. A reduzida presença de fibras da dieta da totalidade dos escolares causa preocupação, especialmente quando atenção é dirigida aos valores preconizados (25 a 38g/dia): o maior consumo foi observado entre os alunos de Parnaiba (14,3 g), enquanto em Joinville, a ingestão alcançou 7,9 g (menor quantidade média identificada). Não sobram dúvidas que o grupo formado por crianças e adolescentes, especialmente aqueles matriculados nas unidades da rede pública de ensino, merece a atenção dos órgãos de saúde e educação, principalmente no tocante ao monitoramento do consumo de alimentos. / Childhood and adolescence are considered periods that involve a series of changes in which some of them are worth enlightening: the physical growth and development that requires a higher intake of energy and nutrients. It is important that these subjects have a balanced food intake concerning energy and nutrients to reassure that the changes such as in body composition and sexual maturation are guaranteed. One of the most important goals of this work is the assessesment of the nutritional status, the energy and nutrients intake, and the macronutrients present in diets of a sample of 1325 students, enrolled in 20 public schools in 10 Brazilian states. The data on the students food intake were obtained using the 24-hour Recall Method. To the nutritional analyses the software Virtual Nutri was used. It was identified among the main findings an average of energy intake (1503.4 kcal) which was considered below the recommended allowance for the group. When the distribution of the students according to the participation of the macronutrients in the total energy value of the diet was analyzed, it was observed that most of them (55%) has inadequate diets, being the worst situations among students of the Northeast Region (Parnaíba and Brasileira) and the North Region (Abaetetuba and Tailândia). The opposite was found among the students from Joinville-SC (71,3% of the group had diets classified as adequate). The analyses of the nutritional status found no prevalence of low weight among the students in the study. Most of them (around 92.6%) were classified as eutrophic and an expected rate (5%) was identified as overweight. Nonetheless among the students from Joinville (14.7%) and Ponte Serrada (16.3%) the results related to overweightness (percentages practically 3 times higher) distinguished by the superiority over the others. Regarding the consumption of minerals, it is surprisingly the low intake of calcium: most of them hadn’t had 50% of the recommended allowance. In relation to the average intake of vitamins the situation can be classified as more regular, except when the reduced intake of folacin and pantotenic acid is considered. The average content of fibers in the diets of all the students is cause of worries especially when the recommended daily allowance (25 to 38g): the highest intake was observed in students from Paraiba (14.3g) and the lowest was identified in students from Joinville. There are no doubts that the group of children and adolescents, especially the ones who attend public schools deserve close attention from the health and educational institutions concerning to food comsuption.

Die Tätigkeiten im Notarzt- und Rettungsdienst sind häufig mit persönlichen Gefährdungen verbunden. Im Raum steht aber auch immer die Problematik von Gefährdungssituationen, die durch den Notarzt "nur" als solche wahrgenommen, sozusagen "empfunden" werden. In dieser Arbeit wird v. a. vor dem Hintergrund der Erforderlichkeit und Zumutbarkeit die Frage prinzipiell diskutiert, ob und inwieweit ein Notarzt zum Handeln verpflichtet ist. Im Ergebnis ist objektiv-typisierend auf den Facharztstandard bzw. den Indikationskatalog für den Notarzteinsatz in Kombination mit arzt-/berufsrechtlichen Gesichtspunkten im engeren Sinne (z. B. Freiberuflichkeit) abzustellen. Es wird sich jedenfalls immer um eine Einzelfallbetrachtung und um eine individuelle, fallbezogene Entscheidung handeln. Bei seltenen, sehr unwahrscheinlichen Situationen mit relativer Ermangelung von objektiv-typisierbaren Gesichtspunkten werden die Anforderungen, aber auch die Chancen, an die "höchstpersönliche" Berufsausübung, an die Persönlichkeit des Arztes (v. a. in der Entscheidungsfindung) umso größer werden.

When infrastructure is under construction there may be a necessity for temporary land access. This thesis aims to explore the temporary needs of land while municipal streets and roads are being constructed. Needs that doesn´t remain when the street is completed. Those needs can for example be temporary cargo roads or - as the cover image shows - a work area by the side of the road. When national infrastructure is constructed there are legal possibilities to arrange temporary land access compulsively. Temporary usufruct can be created forcibly through work plans according to the Railway Construction Act and the Road Act. On the other hand, when municipal infrastructure is constructed these legislations do not apply. There is no law that directly regulates municipal road construction. In special legislation which regulates municipal land access there is no explicit support for compulsive temporary land access. An empirical study shows that municipalities to a high degree rely on voluntary agreements to access land temporary. In those situations where agreements cannot be met, but there is still a great need of temporary land access, the municipality turn to the cadastral authority. However, the cadastral authority has dubious support in legislation to establish rights of a temporary nature compulsively. A solution that has been applied in practice is formation of temporary easement by the cadastral authority, to meet the necessity of temporary work areas. This solution would be contrary to the requirement of that the purpose of easements must be of permanent significance. Interviews has also indicated that easements formed by the cadastral authority for permanent roadside ditches sometimes also are used as temporary work areas during construction of streets. If such an easement is used for another purpose than a ditch, the easement’s right is exceeded. It cannot be considered a legal secure order that easements are used for other purposes than intended. There have not been found a satisfactory way in the legislation to compulsively meet the need of temporary land access for municipalities. It is therefore proposed that a change is made in the legislation to allow the cadastral authority to form temporary easements for temporary land access. The change should be an exception of the requirement for permanent significance in those cases the purpose of the easement fulfills an important public interest and is temporary. As an alternative, enabling of temporary usufruct through zoning plans could be a solution to the problem. / Vid anläggande av infrastruktur kan det finnas behov av tillfällig markåtkomst. Detta examensarbete tar sikte på de tillfälliga behov av mark som finns vid anläggande av kommunala gator och vägar. De tillfälliga behoven kan utgöras av alltifrån tillfälliga transportvägar till – som bilden på framsidan visar – ett arbetsområde vid sidan av vägen. När statlig infrastruktur ska anläggas finns legala möjligheter att ordna tillfällig markåtkomst tvångsvis. Tillfälliga officialnyttjanderätt kan tillskapas genom järnvägs- och vägplan enligt lagen om byggande av järnväg respektive väglagen. När kommunal infrastruktur ska anläggas är dessa lagar inte tillämpliga. Någon enskild lagstiftning för kommunal gatubyggnation finns inte. I speciallagstiftning som tillgodoser kommunala markbehov finns inte heller något uttryckligt stöd för tvångsvis tillfällig markåtkomst. I examensarbetet har en empirisk undersökning med intervjuer genomförts. Där har framkommit att kommuner i hög grad förlitar sig på frivilliga överenskommelser. I de fall avtal inte kan slutas, men behoven av tillfällig markåtkomst är stort, tvingas kommunen vända sig till lantmäterimyndigheten. Emellertid har lantmäterimyndigheten tvivelaktigt stöd i lag för att kunna bilda rättigheter av tillfällig natur. En lösning som har tillämpats i praktiken är bildande av tillfälligt officialservitut enligt 7 kap. 1 § FBL, för att tillgodose behov av arbetsområde. Denna lösning torde dock vara i strid med kravet på att ändamål med servitut måste vara av stadigvarande betydelse enligt 14 kap. 1 § JB. Det har även uppmärksammats att servitut för permanent slänt ibland används som tillfälligt arbetsområde under byggtiden av kommunala gator. Om ett släntservitutsområde använts för annat ändamål än slänt överskrids rättigheten. Ingen särskild prövning har gjorts av det andra ändamålet, dvs. arbetsområdet. Till följd av detta görs intrång i äganderätten utan prövning, vilket kan anses vara en kränkning av äganderätten. Sammanfattningsvis har inga tillfredsställande sätt hittats, som tvångsvist kan tillgodose behovet av tillfällig markåtkomst vid gatubyggnation. Därför föreslås att en ändring görs i 7 kap. 1 § FBL som medger avsteg från kravet om stadigvarande betydelse, i de fall ändamålet med servitutet tillgodoser ett angeläget allmänt intresse och är av tillfällig natur. Ett alternativ till detta är att tillfälliga officialnyttjanderätter kan tillskapas genom en detaljplan.

The aim of the diploma thesis is to define a specific phenomenon bound to the current consumer society, which by its expression considers certain values and relations to the material world as necessary or, on the contrary, unnecessary. At the same time, it examines the boundary between consumer goods that we use on a daily basis and the subjects that have become part of our personality. These findings are demonstrated on specific examples. Telecommunication progress and its impact on today's consumer society in all aspects of nowadays lifestyle has become the starting point for the diploma work. Phone as an artifact has become part of our life with an ever more personal approach. This phenomenon is grasped theoretically, creatively and as an opportunity for pedagogical activity and research. The pedagogical intention is not only suggested but also verified and reflected in praxis.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Wharton’s heroines are ordinary women who fight to secure material comfort and create selves that satisfy their emotional and sexual needs. These women often find that the two goals are mutually exclusive, since society strictly dictates appropriate behavior. This code of behavior stems from their relation to men: as objects to be won, as wives, and as mothers. In many instances, women are not even aware of their prescriptive roles and confuse their search for self with a search for security. Material comfort does not nurture Wharton’s heroines’ inner selves and they feel a metaphysical dissatisfaction, often seeking to find contentment through divorce or affairs. What they find in either case is that the cure to their ennui is not material, but mental. Wharton’s women seek a transcendent self—a self that is not dependent upon popular notions of respectability; a spiritual state that is independent from any attachment to social imperatives.

Bien qu’elles soient nécessaires et d’intérêt public, les mesures mises en place par les États pour faire face à la pandémie de Covid-19 peuvent être remises en cause par les investisseurs étrangers, alléguant qu’elles violent leurs droits protégés par les accords internationaux d’investissement, occasionnant ainsi un risque sans précédent d’arbitrages en matière d’investissement découlant de plus de 3.300 traités conclus dans le monde en la matière. La présente étude a pour objectif d’examiner l’incidence de l’arbitrage Investisseur-État sur l’action étatique en période de crise sanitaire. Concrètement, nous allons analyser les réclamations potentielles qui pourraient être portées par les investisseurs étrangers contre les États pour des mesures prises en vue de faire face à la crise sanitaire, ainsi que les défenses que les États pourraient opposer à ces réclamations. Il s’agira de voir s’il existe dans les accords internationaux d’investissement ou en droit international coutumier des exceptions ou défenses permettant aux États de prendre des mesures de sauvegarde dans l’intérêt général en période de crise sans engager leur responsabilité. / Although necessary and in the public interest, state responses to the Covid-19 pandemic can be challenged by foreign investors as violating their rights under international investment agreements, creating an unprecedented risk of investment arbitration arising from the more than 3,300 investment treaties in force worldwide. The objective of this study is to examine the impact of investor-state arbitration on state action in times of health crises. Specifically, we will analyse the potential claims that could be brought by foreign investors against states for actions taken in response to the health crisis, as well as the defences that states could raise against such claims. The aim will be to see whether there are any exceptions or defences in international investment agreements or customary international law that allow states to take safeguard measures in the public interest during a crisis without incurring liability.