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民國93年4月醫療法修正通過，第82條第2項明文規定：「醫療機構及其醫事人員因執行業務致生損害於病人，以故意或過失為限，負損害賠償責任。」本條之立法意旨係為避免一般必要性醫療若採無過失責任，則會造成防禦性醫療之產生，誠非病患與社會之益。雖修法後認定醫療行為不適用無過失責任規定，但醫療行為是否適用消保法其他規定，則未明文。然，新興醫療型態之美容醫學出現，人們不再單純為了治癒疾病進而追求外觀美貌，破除了一般必要性醫療之特性，此種「非治療性」且「非必要性」醫療的美容醫學服務，缺乏公益性且具消費營利特性，本文認為法律適用應與一般必要性醫療區別。又，我國消費者保護法未對服務設有定義性之文字，故本文加以分析美容醫學適用消費者保護法之理由。 研究方法上係以文獻分析法、美容醫學相關判決書內容分析法、美容醫學使用者之深度訪談法、筆者實際訪查美容醫學診所之參與觀察法，藉此推論出美容醫學之特性加以定性，亦從中了解美容醫學產業真實狀況以提出法律適用上之疑義。 管見認為我國應加強於美容醫學處置分類及美容醫學作業方面的能力要求、針對美容醫學廣告管制、美容醫學手術作業標準與美容醫學道德規範之建立。另，本文建議醫療法第82條第2項修法增訂但書：「但非以治療疾病目的之醫療行為，不在此限。」此種修法方式，則區分一般必要性醫療行為與非必要醫療行為，一則保護美容醫學消費者的權益，二則可據其反面解釋，更進一步確認「一般必要性醫療行為」適用過失責任之立法意旨。 / In 2014 April, Medical Care Act amend Article 82 section 2 “Medical care institutions and their medical personnel who harm patients in the execution of practice, whether deliberate or by accident, shall be responsible for compensation.” The purpose of this article is to avoid “Defensive Medicine” happen when the essential medical procedures apply to the no-fault liability, because Defensive Medicine won’t benefit the patients and the whole society. As a result, medical practice does not apply to strict liability after amending Medical Care Act. However, it doesn’t show medical practice is applicable Consumer Protection Law or not. Nowadays, people are no longer only to cure disease but to pursue the appearance of beauty. Therefore, new type of medical treatments appears - Aesthetic Medicine. This kind of medical treatment breaks down the traits of the essential medical procedures, such as "non-therapeutic" and "non-essential". Aesthetic Medicine which is losing sight of public welfare is actually a business guided by market structures aimed primarily at material gain and profit. Therefore, this study discusses the difference between Aesthetic Medicine and Medical Necessity, and why they should have the different applications of law. In Taiwan, Consumer Protection Law doesn’t define “the service”, so this study analyzed the reasons why Aesthetic Medicine should include in “the service” that should apply to Consumer Protection Law. The method of this study were Documentary Analysis, Content Analysis of the judgments relate to the Aesthetic Medicine, in-depth interview of the Aesthetic Medicine users, Participant Observation of the Aesthetic Medicine clinics, infer a conclusion from the fact that can realize the traits of the Aesthetic Medicine and question the way Aesthetic Medicine apply to the law. The results of this study would provide useful information in drawing related regulations, policies and management strategies. Key words: Cosmetic medicine, consumer protection laws, the non-necessity of medical care, medical cosmetic, medical disputes.

The therapeutic privilege is a defence in terms of which a doctor may withhold information from a patient if disclosure of such information could harm the patient. This study explores the defence of therapeutic privilege and provides a critical evaluation. A comparative investigation is undertaken, while arguments springing from a variety of disciplines are also incorporated. A number of submissions are made for limiting the ambit of the defence. The main submission is that the therapeutic privilege should comply with all the requirements of the defence of necessity. In addition, it should contain some of the safeguards afforded to the patient by the requirements of the defence of negotiorum gestio so that therapeutic privilege is out of the question if medical treatment is administered against the patient's will, or the doctor has reason to believe (or knows) that the patient will refuse to undergo an intended intervention once properly informed. / Jurisprudence / L.L.M. (Jurisprudence)

Text in Afrikaans / Summaries in English and Afrikaans / Die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika en die Wet op Arbeidsverhoudinge verleen aan werknemers die reg om te staak. Die reg is egter nie onbeperk nie. Op grond van die voldoening aan wetlike vereistes, word stakings as beskermd of onbeskermd geklassifiseer. Beskermde stakers kan ontslaan word weens wangedrag tydens die staking of op grond van die bedryfsvereistes van die werkgewer. Die werkgewer se bedryfsvereistes sal ontslag regverdig indien sy /haar vlak van toleransie bereik is. Dit sal die geval wees indien die werkgewer se besigheid met ondergang gedreig word of onherroeplike skade gaan ly, sou die staking voortduur. Aile relevante faktore moet egter in ag geneem word. Daar is nie tans 'n vasgestelde toets in die verband nie en daar word ook aan die hand gedoen dat billikheid, met inagneming van al die relevante faktore en omstandighede, die belangrikste oorweging moet wees. 'n Vasgestelde toets vir die bepaling van die werkgewer se vlak van toleransie, word afgekeur. / The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa and the Labour Relations Act give employees the right to strike. This right is, however, not unlimited. By reason of the satisfaction of statutory requirements, strikes are classified as protected or unprotected. Protected strikers may be dismissed for misconduct during the strike or by reason of the operational requirements of the employer. The employer's operational requirements will justify dismissal when his/her level of tolerance is reached. This will be the case when the employer's business is on the brink of extinction or about to suffer irreparable harm. All the relevant facts must however be taken into account. Currently there is no definite test in this regard and it is proposed that fairness, taking into account all the relevant facts and circumstances, be the overriding consideration. A specific test for the determination of the employer's level of tolerance must be rejected. / Economics and Management Sciences / LL.M.

目前學界對於西塞羅與馬基維利兩者關係的看法有所不一，所爭論的是馬基維利是衝突或是延續著共和主義人文傳統，本文則嘗試論證西塞羅和馬基維利之間並非僅是傳統上的大相逕庭，而是兩者分別在當時所處環境中就各別看重的問題上，找到最好的解決辦法，在最終考量上皆以表現出國家利益為考量的傾向。西塞羅的關懷以高尚性意圖出發，藉由智慧明白事物真理，藉由正義保障人的生存，利用例外原則進而維持國家；馬基維利認為為了國家利益的目的，統治者應審慎明智的在必要時刻做出必要抉擇，利用具有美德樣貌的能力行事，那些能夠明白統治者難處的人，都能明白其目的的良善以寬宥其手段。然而，要注意到馬基維利的寬宥想法，有著看不到真正結果與國家利益是經常變動的兩個盲點。此外，即便兩者重視國家利益的態度可以如此相近，但西塞羅認為高尚性是國家利益的根本，而馬基維利並不如此。最後，本文整理出兩者可以從思想與時勢立場互相置換，進而指出：充分的理解尊重以達到對話的可能。進而不論是冀求理念融合或尊重其並立，行動與意圖都需要切中要義的把握合宜或時勢。或在規範之中尋找例外，或在極端之中遵循規範，權宜變通勢必成為不可忽略的方式之一。 / There are many arguments about the relation between Cicero and Machiavelli in academic circles. One of them argues that the thoughts of Machiavelli might conflict to republicanism and humanistic traditions. This article is trying to demonstrate another angle that Machiavelli is not merely different from Cicero and traditions, but similar to the purpose which is they are finding the seemliest way respectively at the specific circumstance in their time. Cicero is concerning the honourableness which is realizing the truth by wisdom, ensuring lives of men by justice, and using exceptions of principles in order to maintain the republic. Machiavelli thinks the ruler should make necessary decisions by prudence and use the abilities with virtue like at necessary time to maintain the existence of the state. And those people who know the dilemma of the ruler will know his great ends and excuse whatever means. However, the thought of excuse has two flaws. One is the real end cannot be seen, and another is the benefit of republic often changed. Yet, even though Cicero and Machiavelli are so close to each other because they are placing a high value on the benefit of republic, the former who argue the base of republican benefit is honourableness, not for the later. In the end, this article is trying to put each of them under the opposite thought and circumstances for making a conversation with sufficient respect and realization possible. No matter it is intermingling or separating both ideas, the actions and intentions must be appropriate to seemliness and circumstances. And no matter it is searching exceptions in norms or norms in extremes, the seemly ways for specific circumstances is absolutely necessary.

Pour Simone Weil, le malheur est « quelque chose de spécifique, irréductible à toute autre chose, comme les sons, dont rien ne peut donner aucune idée à un sourd-muet ». Il s’apparente à un sacrement, à un rite sacré susceptible de rapprocher l’homme du divin. Et si la pensée weilienne se révèle non-conformiste pour aborder la figure du malheur, c’est parce qu’elle ne se limite pas à une tradition unique, mais trouve écho tant dans la religion chrétienne et le Nouveau Testament que dans la philosophie grecque de l’antiquité – principalement le stoïcisme et le platonisme – et dans certains textes orientaux tels que la Bhagavad-Gîtâ et le Tao Te King. Par un singulier amalgame de ces influences, Weil donne naissance à une méthode spirituelle dont une des étapes fondamentales est le malheur, thème très fécond pour dénouer et affronter le dialogue entre spiritualité et contemporanéité. Parce que cette méthode ne peut pleinement être appréhendée que sur la frontière de l’athéisme et de la croyance religieuse, approfondir ses implications permet d’interroger les traces du sacré dans les civilisations occidentales. Retracer les étapes de son développement permet également de sonder le rapport qu’entretiennent les hommes avec le malheur, ainsi que de porter un regard sensible sur une époque où l’actualité fait souvent état des malheureux alors que le malheur d’autrui semble être une réalité à fuir. / For Simone Weil, a calamity is “something specific that cannot be reduced to anything else, just as sounds are inconceivable for a deaf-mute.“ It resembles a sacrament, a sacred rite bringing man closer to the divine. Weil’s thinking with regard to the notion of calamity appears nonconformist because it does not limit itself to a single tradition, but finds echoes simultaneously in the Christian religion and the New Testament, in ancient Greek philosophy - mainly Stoicism and Platonism - and in certain eastern texts such as the Bhagavad-Gita and the Tao Te King. By a strange combination of these influences, Weil gives birth to a spiritual method of which one of the fundamental stages is “calamity”, a very fertile ground for opening up and coming to terms with the dialogue between spirituality and contemporaneousness. Because this method can be completely understood only at the boundary between atheism and religious faith, examining its implications allows for questioning the traces of the sacred in Western civilizations. Retracing the stages of its development also allows for reflecting on the relationship between man and calamity or catastrophy, permitting as well a measured consideration of an epoch when current events often bring to the fore the calamitous fate of others as a reality to be avoided at all costs.

服務貿易的管制密集，因此管制也最有可能形成主要的貿易障礙，然而服務貿易總協定第6條第4項國內規章準則的談判卻幾近停滯。本文探究其中原因，著眼於管制、國內規章準則的共同點皆在於「管制」，而好的管制必然植基於成本效益評估，因此必要性測試即成為國內規章準則的核心。必要性測試的核心為管制目的、成本效益評估，本文觀察必要性測試的談判歷程，認為必要性測試的談判實不應透過管制目的的限縮，而應著重於成本效益的衡量，因此著重於成本效益評估要件的設計方有可能於必要性測試的議題取得突破。 / As service sector is heavily regulated, domestic regulation might become the major trade barrier. However, the negotiation under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) article 6.4 is almost stalled. The paper aims at analyzing the challenges in the negotiation. Focusing on the common nature of “governance” between domestic regulation and trade governance in GATS article 6.4, the paper argues that good governance must be based on impact analysis, which makes necessity test the core of GATS article 6.4 negotiation. The paper examines the negotiation history of necessity test, and argues that the focus of negotiation should be the necessity analysis, rather than the scope of objectives in necessity test. The solution of the negotiation challenge is therefore focusing on the elements of necessity analysis, particularly the trade restrictiveness.

Dans cette thèse l’ancienne question philosophique “tout événement a-t-il une cause ?” sera examinée à la lumière de la mécanique quantique et de la théorie des probabilités. Aussi bien en physique qu’en philosophie des sciences la position orthodoxe maintient que le monde physique est indéterministe. Au niveau fondamental de la réalité physique – au niveau quantique – les événements se passeraient sans causes, mais par chance, par hasard ‘irréductible’. Le théorème physique le plus précis qui mène à cette conclusion est le théorème de Bell. Ici les prémisses de ce théorème seront réexaminées. Il sera rappelé que d’autres solutions au théorème que l’indéterminisme sont envisageables, dont certaines sont connues mais négligées, comme le ‘superdéterminisme’. Mais il sera argué que d’autres solutions compatibles avec le déterminisme existent, notamment en étudiant des systèmes physiques modèles. Une des conclusions générales de cette thèse est que l’interprétation du théorème de Bell et de la mécanique quantique dépend crucialement des prémisses philosophiques desquelles on part. Par exemple, au sein de la vision d’un Spinoza, le monde quantique peut bien être compris comme étant déterministe. Mais il est argué qu’aussi un déterminisme nettement moins radical que celui de Spinoza n’est pas éliminé par les expériences physiques. Si cela est vrai, le débat ‘déterminisme – indéterminisme’ n’est pas décidé au laboratoire : il reste philosophique et ouvert – contrairement à ce que l’on pense souvent. Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse un modèle pour l’interprétation de la probabilité sera proposé. Une étude conceptuelle de la notion de probabilité indique que l’hypothèse du déterminisme aide à mieux comprendre ce que c’est qu’un ‘système probabiliste’. Il semble que le déterminisme peut répondre à certaines questions pour lesquelles l’indéterminisme n’a pas de réponses. Pour cette raison nous conclurons que la conjecture de Laplace – à savoir que la théorie des probabilités présuppose une réalité déterministe sous-jacente – garde toute sa légitimité. Dans cette thèse aussi bien les méthodes de la philosophie que de la physique seront utilisées. Il apparaît que les deux domaines sont ici solidement reliés, et qu’ils offrent un vaste potentiel de fertilisation croisée – donc bidirectionnelle. / In this thesis the ancient philosophical question whether ‘everything has a cause’ will be examined in the light of quantum mechanics and probability theory. In the physics and philosophy of science communities the orthodox position states that the physical world is indeterministic. On the deepest level of physical reality – the quantum level – things or events would have no causes but happen by chance, by irreducible hazard. Arguably the clearest and most convincing theorem that led to this conclusion is Bell’s theorem. Here the premises of this theorem will be re-evaluated, notably by investigating physical model systems. It will be recalled that other solutions to the theorem than indeterminism exist, some of which are known but neglected, such as ‘superdeterminism’. But it will be argued that also other solutions compatible with determinism exist. One general conclusion will be that the interpretation of Bell’s theorem and quantum mechanics hinges on the philosophical premises from which one starts. For instance, within a worldview à la Spinoza the quantum world may well be seen as deterministic. But it is argued that also much ‘softer’ determinism than Spinoza’s is not excluded by the existing experiments. If that is true the ‘determinism – indeterminism’ is not decided in the laboratory: it remains philosophical and open-ended – contrary to what is often believed. In the second part of the thesis a model for the interpretation of probability will be proposed. A conceptual study of the notion of probability indicates that the hypothesis of determinism is instrumental for understanding what ‘probabilistic systems’ are. It seems that determinism answers certain questions that cannot be answered by indeterminism. Therefore we believe there is room for the conjecture that probability theory cannot not do without a deterministic reality underneath probability – as Laplace claimed. Throughout the thesis the methods of philosophy and physics will be used. Both fields appear to be solidly intertwined here, and to offer a large potential for cross-fertilization – in both directions.

The environmental crisis threatens the fundamental values of the political liberal tradition. As the autonomy, the security and the prosperity of persons and peoples are jeopardized by political inaction, the legitimacy of the liberal constitutional order is compromised. Because of important collective action problems, the democratic processes are unfit to address the present crisis and protect adequately the natural environment. Two institutional solutions deemed capable of preserving the legitimacy of the functional domination at the heart of social order are analyzed. The first is the constitutionalization of a right to an adequate natural environment, which purports to circumvent the paralysis of legislative power. The second is the declaration of a limited state of emergency and the use of exceptional powers, which purports to circumvent the paralysis of both legislative and judiciary powers. Despite their legitimacy, the diligent application of these political solutions remains improbable. / La dégradation de l’environnement naturel menace les valeurs fondamentales de la tradition libérale que sont l’autonomie, la sécurité et la prospérité des personnes et des peuples. À ce titre, la légitimité morale de l’ordre constitutionnel libéral et la légitimité morale de l’autorité politique qui le représente sont toutes deux compromises. Or, les mécanismes démocratiques apparaissent pour de nombreuses raisons inaptes à assurer une protection suffisante de l’environnement naturel. Pour rétablir la légitimité des rapports de commandement et d’obéissance qui fondent l’ordre social, deux solutions institutionnelles sont analysées. La première consiste à constitutionnaliser un droit à un environnement naturel de qualité pour dépasser la paralysie du pouvoir législatif. La seconde consiste à déclarer un état d’urgence limité et à recourir aux pouvoirs d’exception, de manière à dépasser l’impotence législative et l’impotence judiciaire. En dépit de leur légitimité, la mise en œuvre de ces solutions politiques demeure improbable.

This thesis is written as an essay, which considers sculpture outside of its definition as art object. Having as its goal finding an intrinsic definition of sculpture, the essay sets on a short journey meandering between ideas, historic precedents, and anecdotes. Among some of the discussed thing are: necessity, labor, leisure, Olduvai chopping stone tool, making, human hand, brain, body, pineal gland, third eye, speculation, materiality, Dixie cup, objecthood, sign, imagination, ENIAC, immateriality, myth, labor, leisure, storytelling, alien, alienation, destruction, creativity, genius, death, weed. The essay concludes that sculpture does not need a definition.