The Master´s thesis is engaged in valuation of property in Germany. Special focus is given to on valuation methods applicable to apartment value estimation. In order to that comparative and capital valuation methods are described in detail within the scope of the thesis. These methods are applied on the example of apartment valuation of an current apartment in Münster in the thesis. Fundamental components of the thesis are an explanation of basic valuation methods, an explanation of basis terms, a method of determination of average rent, a basic legal regulations and a description of an expert´s assessment. Furthermore the thesis describes as well the actual situation on the real estate market in Germany.

The aim of the thesis is to create price maps of rental flats in Brno . This maps are elaborated in graphical and electronical form. There is also description of obatining and evaluating of data concerning rents of flats. Data are membered according to the type of flat and city parts of Brno. Analysis of data is a part of the thesis as well.

Text in Afrikaans / Summary in English / Until recently damages were only awarded in South African law for the loss of an object which was utilised for the generation of income. In Kellerman v South African Transport Services' damages were awarded for the first time for the loss of use of an object, which was used for non-business purposes. In this dissertation the writer aims to indicate that the personal loss that a plaintiff suffers by the loss of the object is so closely related to the physical possession through which it is served, that the Jaw should protect such personal interest. In such circumstances damages should be awarded in principle, irrespective of whether the plaintiff used the object for business purposes or whether he indeed hired a substitute or not. There is room in the South African law for development in the area of delictual damages for the Joss of the possibility to use a material object. / Private Law / LL.M.

Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The lessor's tacit hypothec improves the chances of the lessor to recover rent in arrears. This real security right arises by operation of law and attaches to the lessee's movable property found on the leased premises when rent is due but not paid. The extension of the lessor‟s tacit hypothec to third parties' property is the remedy's most controversial feature. The extension is supposedly based on one of two theoretical justifications, namely implied consent and the doctrine of estoppel. According to the implied-consent theory, the extension is based on the premise that the third party consented (explicitly or by implication) that his property can serve as security for the payment of the lessee's arrear rent. The basis of the second theory, the doctrine of estoppel, operates as a limitation on the rei vindicatio of the third party. Over the years discourse has shown that there are uncertainties surrounding these justifications. Recent debate has also shown that if constitutionally challenged, the extension of the lessor's tacit hypothec could amount to arbitrary deprivation of third parties' property. The aim of this thesis is to establish whether and how the existing common law principles that provide for the extension of the lessor's tacit hypothec over property belonging to third parties are affected by section 25(1) of the Constitution. Consequently, the thesis describes, analyses and scrutinises the general principles regulating the lessor's tacit hypothec, and more specifically the extension of the lessor's tacit hypothec to third parties' property, in view of section 25(1) of the Constitution. Taking into considering the recent statutory protection of third parties' property, the thesis concludes that the extension of the lessor's tacit hypothec does not constitute an arbitrary deprivation of third parties' property because correct application of the common law principles that provide for the extension and the statutory protection that has been introduced to exclude a large number of cases from the reach of the extension adequately protect third parties' property interests. Therefore, the requirements of section 25(1) are satisfied. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die verhuurder se stilswyende hipoteek verbeter sy kanse om agterstallige huur van sy huurder in te vorder. Wanneer die huur opeisbaar word, maar die huurder versuim om tydig te betaal, kom hierdie saaklike sekerheidsreg deur regswerking tot stand en dit dek alle roerende sake wat op die verhuurde perseel gevind word. Die uitbreiding van die stilwyende hipoteek na eiendom wat aan derde partye behoort is die remedie se mees kontroversiële eienskap. Hierdie uitbreiding van die hipoteek se toepassingsveld berus na bewering op een van twee regverdigingsgronde, naamlik die derde se geïmpliseerde toestemming en die leerstuk van estoppel. Volgens die geïmpliseerde toestemming-teorie kan die hipoteek na derdes se bates uitgebrei word op die veronderstelling dat sodanige derde partye toegestem het (uitdruklik of by implikasie) dat hulle eiendom as sekuriteit vir betaling van die huurder se agterstallige huur mag dien. Die tweede teorie steun op die beperking wat die leerstuk van estoppel op die rei vindicatio van die derde party plaas. Oor die jare het debatte aangedui dat daar onsekerhede rondom hierdie regverdigingsgronde bestaan. Onlangse debatte het ook aangetoon dat, indien dit grondwetlik getoets word, die uitbreiding van die hipoteek moontlik mag neerkom op ‟n arbitrêre ontneming van die derdes se eiendom. Die doel van hierdie tesis is om vas te stel of en hoe die bestaande gemeenregtelike beginsels wat die stilswyende hipoteek na bates van derdes uitbrei deur artikel 25(1) van die Grondwet beïnvloed word. Die tesis bespreek, analiseer en toets gevolglik die algemene beginsels van die verhuurder se stilswyende hipoteek, en meer spesifiek die uitbreiding van die hipoteek na bates wat aan derdes behoort, in die lig van artikel 25(1) van die Grondwet. Met inagneming van die beskerming wat derde party se eiendom in terme van onlangse wetgewing geniet, bevind die tesis dat die uitgebreide toepassing van die stilswyende hipoteek nie op ʼn arbitrêre ontneming van derde partye se eiendom neerkom nie omdat korrekte toepassing van die gemeenregtelike beginsels wat vir die uitbreiding voorsiening maak, in kombinasie met die wetgewende uitsluiting van ‟n groot aantal sake wat aan derdes behoort, voldoende beskerming aan die belange van derdes verleen. Die vereistes van artikel 25(1) word dus bevredig.

published_or_final_version / Urban Planning / Master / Master of Science in Urban Planning

以往探討三七五減租之議題，多為站在保障佃農的角度，於既存的制度當中研擬解決三七五租約之辦法；本研究則從地主財產權保障的角度出發，探討三七五租約對於地主財產權產生之限制，並根據研究分析之結果研擬終止耕地三七五租約之補償對策，盼政府正視三七五租約對地主財產權限制與損失補償之課題。 租佃雙方依耕地三七五減租條例（以下簡稱減租條例）所訂定之三七五租約，對於佃農耕作權之保障十分完善，但反過來說即是對地主財產權之嚴格限制。政府自民國40年正式實施減租政策，截至民國95年底止，仍有約4萬1千筆的租約件數受減租條例所規範。三七五租約長期性地對地主財產權產生收益上的限制，若依照大法官解釋文中所陳述「財產權持續性的限制」，若逾其社會責任所應忍受之範圍，形成個人之特別犧牲者，國家應就個別情形給予合理補償，而三七五租約似符合此一概念。由於我國對於因政府執行管制政策造成人民財產權受損，未有得以維護其財產權之適當管道，本研究遂援用美國法管制性剝奪學說之概念，嘗試對三七五租約加以分析，藉由分析發現，減租條例對地主嚴格之限制，已構成管制性剝奪，類屬於我國特別犧牲之情形。 本研究進一步針對都市地區及鄉村地區之三七五租約個案加以訪談分析，發現位於都市地區且用地已變更編訂之個案，財產權受限制程度最高；而位於鄉村地區用地未變更之個案，其財產權受限制程度最低。是以未來政府於處理三七五租約議題時，應對於不同地區之租約個案加以了解，並且對於達到特別犧牲程度之地主，給予應有之補償。 / 37.5% rent reduction contracts limit landlords to exercise their usufruct over a long period of time. According to the Interpretations of Justice of the Constitutional Court, if lasting limitations on property rights were to the extent that the harm suffered has become a special sacrifice, the government has to compensation the property owners. This paper quotes the concept of regulatory taking to analyze 37.5% rent reduction contracts with the principles of diminution in fair market value, economically viable use, and investment-backed expectations. By case study, some 37.5% rent reduction contracts have become regulatory takings, which are like special sacrifices. As a result, the government has to place importance on the issue of 37.5% rent reduction contracts, and compensation the property owners who suffer special sacrifice.

新古典理論探析土地利用區位之決定，純粹從資源與技術因素探討理性人的經濟行為，而忽略經濟活動中人的受限理性因素，以及制度運行的交易成本因素，致無法圓滿解釋殯葬用地區位之形成。本文將抗爭交易成本當成都市地租理論的自變項，嘗試修正Alonso等人的新古典競租模型，並建構適合殯葬設施用途的競租理論，進而分析陰宅之負擔地租能力提高是否入侵陽宅用地，及抗爭阻力大小與殯葬用地區位距市申心遠近之關係。經實證結果發現，由於高額抗爭交易成本之存在，縱使人們對於陰宅需求增加，陰宅之負擔地租能力提高，亦可能無法入侵陽宅用地，迫使開發者往更遠離市中心之區位設置殯葬設施。高額抗爭交易成本隱含制度供給不足現象，同時阻礙了土地資源利用之合理有效配置。其次，殯葬設施設置之抗爭阻力大小與地點距離並無必然關係，顯示忽略交易成本因素，而純粹以地點距離為區位選擇考量的公共政策之缺陷。上開分析不但能深化新古典都市地租理論之意涵，也將有助於對鄰避型設施設置區位問題之掌握與了解，提供改善鄰避衝突公共政策問題之理論基礎。 經藉由交易成本理論觀點，探析殯葬用地區位管理政策之結果，發現我國之政策設計主要係基於確保公共衛生及避免妨害生活環境，於主要法規規範設置地點及距離，而忽略抗爭交易成本之制度因素存在。至於相關法規規範土地使用分區，其禁止設置的分區較多，容許設置的分區較少，有待調整改進。源於上述政策缺陷，本文研擬改進構想，包括賦予抗爭與反抗爭之間更多自主協商空間；強化殯葬設施規劃之人間性與文化性；改革不合時宜之殯葬禮儀文化；以及地方政府應慎選適當地點劃設專用區，供設置經營殯葬設施使用等，如欲落實至應用層面，有待制定法律將改進構想納入其中。 本文共分七章，第一章為緒論、第二章由文獻評述中獲得啟發，以建立分析架構。第三章從殯葬用地區位選擇之發展歷史中，探究在都市發展的過程中，殯葬用地相對於非殯葬用地的區位變遷情形，及其影響此種變遷的制度或非制度因素。第四章檢視傳統新古典區位理論運用於探究殯葬用地區位之限制，並從新制度主義交易成本理論之修正觀點建立本文之研究假設。第五章依研究假設實證估算抗爭交易成本之存在，並比較分析各殯葬設施設置抗爭案例，以了解抗爭交易成本大小與殯葬設施區位之關係及其隱含的制度、經濟與規劃意義。第六章根據實證分析結果，並配套考量行政管制及文化等其他制度因素，進而嘗試研議提供政府從事殯葬用地規劃與管理之參考決策。第七章為結論與建議。 關鍵字：殯葬用地、區位、交易成本、新古典競租模型、新制度主義 / Neo-classicalism explores the decision of the location of the land use by mainly analyzing the human economic behavior through the factors of resources and techniques. However, the theory is not able to explain the formation of the location of funerary lands well because it neglects people are restricted by the factors of bounded rationality in the economic activities and the transaction costs when the institutions is functioning. The paper tries to amend the Neoclassical Bid-Rent Model of Alonso by defining the factor of resisting transaction costs as the independent variable of the urban land rent theory, and establishes the suitable Bid-Rent theory for firnerary facilities. Furthermore, the paper analyzes if enhancing the ability of affording the rent of the firnerary Land will invade the nonfunerary land, the relationship between the degree of resisting obstruction and the distance from the firnerary land to the CBD. Through the identification, the funerary land won't invade the nonfunerary land due to the high resisting transaction cost even increasing the demand and the ability of affording the rent of the funerary land, thus, it will force the developer to establish the funerary facilities far away CBD. High resisting transaction costs imply the lack of system supply and hinder the reasonable and efficient allocation of the land resource use simultaneously. This expose the defect of the public policy for location decision only considering the site distance but neglect the factor of the transaction cost. The above analysis will not only deeply elaborate the Neo-Classical Urban Land Theory, but will also be helpful to understand the issue of sitting NIMBY facilities and to provide the basis of the theory to improve the public policies of NIMBY conflicts. Exploring the administrative policy of location selection through the transaction costs theory,The paper find out that in order to preserve public health and prevent disorder of living environment, the law regulates the site and distance from populous or water conservation areas without considering the transaction costs. In addition, the zoning system concerning the construction of funerary facilities puts more emphasis on prohibition than permission, which needs to be improved. Owing to the policy limitations, the paper proposes the improvement of the policies as follows. First, leave more spaces for negotiation between resistance parties and developers. Second, design the funerary facilities to meet human and cultural needs. Third, reform the culture of funeral rites. Fourth, choose the suitable site and plan special zones to provide the suitable areas for construction and management of funerary facilities. The relevant laws have to be amended or to be established so that the policies suggestion will be put to practice. Keywords : Funerary Lands, Location, Transaction Costs, Neoclassical Bid-Rent Model, Neoinstitutionalism

財產權的發展，具有將外部成本內部化，以及減輕租值消散的功能，同時也會影響誘因機制與市場行為，因此，建立可執行的財產權或契約系統，有助於降低交易成本，促進市場交易的效率。土地使用分區管制是政府用以界定財產權的一項重要工具，但在執行的過程中，會受到資訊不完全的因素所限制，而產生許多社會經濟衝突的問題，所以，在財產權界定不完全的情形下，分區管制制度的執行可能是一種負和、零和或正和的賽局。 在台灣的都市規劃管制制度下，土地使用分區管制一直被視為政府執行都市公共政策的重要工具，但是土地使用分區管制制度變遷的原因及對財產權配置的影響，很少被深入的探討，亦少有相關的實證研究予以論述說明。由於分區管制決策直接影響人民的土地財產權範圍，因此，以財產權為研究的焦點，連結制度及執行層面的動態分析，可以更深入地了解政策運作的過程，檢視分區管制制度設計的問題，藉以提供更佳的制度環境。本研究嘗試以新制度經濟學的基礎，基於財產權的觀點，連結制度變遷及執行層面的分析，研究所有權人及利益團體如何透過與政府的協商，改變土地使用分區管制制度，進而影響財產權配置的問題。在方法上，則透過賽局理論及個案研究，建立參與者行為互動模式及進行實證分析，以剖析制度變遷的原因及問題。 本研究除了進行以上所述的議題，亦同時關注制度選擇、容積移轉的問題，以及違規使用的行為，並將從一系列的行為分析中，進一步探究尋租行為對分區管制制度及經濟發展的影響。研究的結果，除了對分區管制制度提出具體的建議外，亦對制度變遷的行為及政府角色，提供更多的認知面向，值得作為都市研究的參考。 / Zoning institution is regarded as an important instrument for enforcing urban policy in Taiwan. Zoning not only control the quality of urban environment, but affect the price of real estate. However, the reasons of zoning institution changed and the factors influenced the assignment of property rights are very rarely investigated. The decision of zoning will directly influence the scope of landowners’ property rights. Thus, based upon the viewpoint of property rights, incorporated with institutional and enforcing dimension to conduct a dynamic analysis can deeply investigate the process of policy operation and the problems of institutional design so as to provide better institutional environment for zoning. This research, based on the property rights perspective and the approach of property rights analysis of New Institutional Economics, intend to investigate the change of zoning institution and its enforcement. The study pays special attention to the bargaining among private landowners, interest groups and government authority. In order to improve the institutional environment, this paper will also try to find the institutional problems in the process of enforcement through cases study. Cases study is used for further analysis the interaction among the actors participated so as to understand the processes of bargaining, re-assignment of property rights and the reasons of zoning institution changed. After the cases study, the research will address some suggestions of institutional design of zoning and try to review the policy of urban development and land use control in Taipei city. A promise suggestion on the institutional design of zoning will be provided for the reference of understanding and research on zoning institution and behaviors. In addition, the impact of the rent-seeking patterns and the production paths on the zoning behaviors resulting in the change of zoning institution are explored. The results of the research will make further suggestions to the issues of institutional design of zoning, and to the avoidance of the negative effects of rent-seeking behavior. Moreover, the source and process of institutional change of zoning related to rent-seeking behavior, and the ways government responds to the rent-seeking behaviors are provided for the reference of further study of urban planning.

過去雖有文獻探討國內房地產市場泡沫化問題，卻僅從租金收益的單一角度衡量房價基值，對於自有住宅比例較高的台灣而言，家戶所得不僅代表購屋者的負擔能力，更是構成房價基值的重要因素。有鑑於此，本研究分別從租金收益及家戶所得兩者不同角度下，透過資產市場現值模型，分別建立房價基值模型分析泡沫化現象。此外，過去文獻僅從檢定價格波動穩定性與否或將殘差項視為泡沫來研究泡沫化問題，然泡沫為不可觀察之變數，故本文使用具有可估計不可觀察變數特質的狀態空間模型（STATE-SPACE MODEL），推估泡沫價格，分析在不同時期下泡沫的規模大小。 在實證方面，本研究使用台北市1973Q2至2008Q1共140筆住宅價格資料，發現由租金與所得所計算之房價泡沫規模略為一致。在1988~1990年房市泡沫化時期，所得推估之泡沫規模達到高峰，泡沫價格占市價約47%；而由租金面亦計算出泡沫價格占市價約54%的高比例。而在2008年房價持續上漲的情況下，兩者泡沫價格亦呈現相同上升之走勢，泡沫價格近市價38%，租金推估泡沫價格占市價27%；此結果表示出目前房市有泡沫化之跡象，現階段欲購屋自住者不宜進入市場，宜審慎等待時機。而本文認為房價所得比或是房價租金比皆是作為衡量台北市房地產市場泡沫化現象之重要指標，另外就總體因素分析而言，房價上漲率、貨幣供給額、貸款利率與大盤股價指數皆為影響泡沫之重要因素，且經由實證發現所得所推估之泡沫價格較具有市場代表性。 / The past literatures about Taipei housing price bubble has only been measured the fundamental price by rent. However, the housing owner ratio is so high in Taiwan that housing income is not only regarded as affordability but also an important fundamental factor of housing price. According to the above, we focus on different fundamental models that define market fundamental price to analyses the bubble price from expected present value of both rent and permanent housing income. On the other hand, different from lots of literature testing the housing price volatility or residual to measure bubble prices, because housing bubble is an unobservable variable, we apply State-Space Model which is good for testing an invisible factor to estimate bubble in the housing markets of Taipei. This paper tries to test whether there was a housing price bubble using Taipei housing price index ranged from 1973Q1 to 2008Q1. The findings indicate that there appeared bubble ratio from 1988 to 1990, 47% of the housing price based on housing income and 54 % of the housing price based on rent. In 2008 when housing price continually keeps rising, bubble price ratios are close to 38% and 27% respectively. Those results show that Taipei seems to have sign of a bubble in this moment and housing buyers should concern it with more caution. Secondly, both price-income ratio and price-rent ratio are good indicators to measure housing bubble prices. Beside, we find macro economic factors change, such as the growth rate of housing price, M2, mortgage rate, and stock price index, are important to influence the size of housing bubble. Thirdly, bubble price estimated by housing income has a better performance than rent.

The purpose of the thesis is to describe and analyse capability of municipalities as subjects creating law to influence own tax revenue. The theoretical foundation of the thesis is definition of self-government and municipal budget aiming at revenue, especially tax revenue in accordance with the budgetary categorization. The main part of the thesis focuses on the municipal budget revenue, which can be influenced by municipaities. It contains two chapters. The first one of them is so concerned with local charges as the payments which the municipalities have the greatest influence on. They decree their introduction or repeal, rate etc. The next chapter of the thesis analyses the authority of municipalities regarding the real estate tax, that is possibility of exemption of real estate touched by natural disaster and exemption of some agricultural lands and set or modification of various coefficients - the local coefficient, the municipal coefficient and location rent. The following part reports on tax authority of slovak municipalities compared with czech ones. Keywords Municipal budget, local charges, local taxes, real estate tax, location rent, municipal coefficient, local coefficient.