A prática deliberada de corrida promove uma melhora no padrão de movimento do corredor, porém ainda é incerto quais são as contribuições da experiência de corrida na mecânica do corpo. No curso de dar luz a essas contribuições nos deparamos com uma questão básica anterior: o que é um corredor experiente? Apesar de existir uma regra dos \"dez anos\" de prática para se tornar especialista, não há uma definição clara do que é ser experiente em corrida e, quantificar o nível da experiência é uma tarefa desafiadora. Uma alternativa para essa tarefa envolve a criação de um sistema de apoio à decisão para classificação do fenômeno utilizando um sistemas linguísticos fuzzy. O uso desses sistemas é indicado para tratar de fenômenos com características de incerteza de identificação. Os objetivos do estudo foram: (i) desenvolver um sistema de apoio à decisão para a classificação da experiência do corredor de longa distância não federado por meio de um modelo fuzzy; e (ii) desenvolver uma prova que avalie a capacidade do corredor em controlar o ritmo durante a corrida, como forma de qualificar a experiência nessa modalidade. Para o primeiro objetivo, dois subsistemas tipo Mamdani foram desenvolvidos a partir do julgamento de três técnicos especialistas em corrida. No primeiro subsistema as variáveis linguísticas de frequência e volume de treino foram combinadas tendo como saída conjuntos que definiram a qualidade da prática. O segundo subsistema combinou à saída do 1º sistema, o número de provas e o tempo de prática e determinou o nível de experiência em corrida, em cinco conjuntos de saída. Os resultados do modelo foram altamente consistentes com a avaliação dos três especialistas em corrida que o criaram (r > O,88, p < O,OOl) e altamente consistentes com a avaliação de cinco outros especialistas (r > O,86, p < O,OOl). Para o segundo objetivo, como os especialistas descreveram de forma contundente que o controle de ritmo durante a corrida é uma característica presente e marcante em corredores experientes, desenvolvemos uma prova para testar essa capacidade do corredor e para que esta ferramenta pudesse ser utilizada como padrão de comparação com os resultados da avaliação do modelo fuzzy. Duas provas de 1000 m e 3200 m foram desenvolvidas. A primeira foi aplicada em 100 e a segunda em 42 corredores de longa distância não federados, onde tinham um tempo alvo para completar a prova baseado no tempo da última prova de 5km ou 10km que tivessem realizado. Os tempos parciais foram mensurados a cada 200m para identificar o ritmo. Foi possível identificar algumas distribuições de ritmo típicas ao longo dos testes, todavia, elas não se relacionaram com o nível de experiência dos corredores, o mesmo ocorreu entre o grau de acurácia em reproduzir os tempos solicitados e o nível de experiência. No geral, pode-se dizer que a classificação de experiência baseada num sistema fuzzy foi consistente como se pode depreender do grau de correlação do modelo com os julgamentos dos especialistas. A ausência de relações significantes entre o modelo e o controle de ritmo pode ser atribuída ao segundo, já que não há consenso na literatura sobre qual seria um teste de ritmo objetivo, fidedigno e válido. O controle de ritmo por si já está imbuído de um grau de incerteza (várias combinações temporais levam ao mesmo resultado final) o que corrobora com a utilização da lógica fuzzy para o entendimento do fenômeno e demanda estudos específicos. É importante destacar que a aplicação do modelo permitiu identificar que um alto nível de experiência não está balizado pela \"regra dos 10 anos de prática\" o que provavelmente tem a ver com o tipo de atividade estudada aqui, depende de uma habilidade mais motora e menos cognitiva. Isso indica que na corrida há outros fatores balizadores, como a frequência e o volume de treinos e a participação em provas. O sistema fuzzy de apoio a decisão para classificação do nível de experiência do praticante de corrida de fundo mostrou-se capaz de identificar e classificar a experiência em corrida com confiabilidade / The deliberate practice of running enhances the runner\'s movement pattern, but it is yet uncertain what are the contributions of running experience to body mechanics. In the course to unravel such contributions one is faced with a more basic question: what is an experienced runner? In spite of the well known rule of \"ten years of practice\" to become an expertise, there is no clear definition of what it is to be an experienced runner, hence to quantify the experience levei is a challenging task. One alternative to this task entails the development a system to support decision-making to classify the phenomenon using Fuzzy Linguistic Systems. The use of such systems is indicated to deal with phenomena that have an uncertain characterization because its identification allows different configurations. The goals of the study were: (i) to develop a fuzzy decision support system for classifying the running experience of non- elite long distance runners; (ii) to develop a running test to assess the runner\'s ability to pace control during running and that might be associated to experience levels. For the first goal, two Mamdani subsystems were developed from the judgements of three expert running coaches. In the first subsystem, the linguistic variables of training frequency and volume were combined and the output defined the quality of running practice. The second subsystem determined the running experience levei from the five output sets of the first subsystem combined with the number of races and practice time. The results of the model were highly consistent with the evaluation done by the three expert running coaches who created it (r > O,88, p < O,OOl) as well as with that of other five expert running coaches (r > O,86, p < O,OOl). For the second goal, considering that the running experts were quite confident that pace control is a marked ability of experienced runners, a running test was developed to assess the runner\'s ability to exert such control and that might be a reference for comparison with the experience levei defined by the fuzzy system based classification. Two running tests, 1000 and 3200 meters races, were developed and applied in a sample of 142 non-elite long distance runners in which they had a goal time to complete the test based on their personal last time in 10km or 5km races. Splits times we-re taken at each 200 m to identify the pace. Although it was possible to identify some typical pace distributions in the tests, they were not correlated to experience levels and also to the accuracy with which the goal time were attained. Overall, the classification of running experience based in a fuzzy system was consistent as one considers the degree of correlation between the model and the judgments made by the expert coaches. The lack of correlation with the pace control might be due to the fact that the test might not be appropriated. There is no consensus in the literature about what would be an objective, reliable and valid running pace control testo Pace control is in itself an uncertain process (many temporal combinations can yield the same final result) which agrees with the use fuzzy logic to unravel it, hence it warrants a set of particular investigations. It is important to remark that with the application of the model it was possible to verify that a high running experience levei is not constrained by \"the ten years of practice\" rule, which is likely to related to the activity studied here. This indicates that in running there are other constraints for experience such as training frequency, volume and participation in races. The fuzzy decision support system to classify the experience levei of the non-elite long distance runner proved to be capable to identify and classify the running experience with reliability

Associado ao aumento do número de praticantes de corrida, houve o aumento proporcional no número de lesões em corredores. Esta ocorrência pode estar relacionada ao volume semanal de treino, aos desvios posturais em membros inferiores, ao tipo de calçado e ao piso selecionados para a prática da corrida, e até mesmo à experiência prévia na modalidade. A superfície de corrida pode ser considerada como um fator extrínseco relacionado a estas lesões e tem sido pesquisada atualmente mas com resultados controversos ainda quanto a sua influência nas sobrecargas do aparelho locomotor. Já, o tempo de experiência na corrida também pode ser considerado um importante fator extrínseco que foi até agora superficialmente estudado. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi investigar a influência de quatro diferentes superfícies de corrida (asfalto, concreto, grama natural e borracha) e da experiência prévia na prática da corrida (até 2 anos, entre 2 e 5 anos e acima de 5 anos) na distribuição da pressão plantar. Foram realizados 3 experimentos para responder aos objetivos do presente trabalho, cada um com sua casuística particular: experimento 1 (n=44) e 2 (n=57) para responder a influência do tipo de piso nas cargas plantares; e experimento 3 (n=126) para responder a influência da experiência da corrida nas pressões plantares. Em todos eles, corredores recreacionais adultos (entre 18 e 40 anos) correram nos 4 pisos estudados a uma velocidade de 12km/h em um trecho de 40 metros onde se investigou a pressão plantar por meio de palmilhas capacitivas (Pedar X, Novel) colocadas dentro de um calçado esportivo padronizado. Para investigar o efeito da experiência na corrida, as medições foram realizadas somente no asfalto. Os dois primeiros experimentos responderam que a grama atenuou em até 16% o pico de pressão plantar nas regiões laterais comparada aos demais pisos, inclusive à borracha cujo comportamento foi similar ao do asfalto e do concreto, superfícies consideradas rígidas. Este resultado pode ser atribuído a estratégias de movimento mais flexíveis das extremidades distais, particularmente do complexo tornozelo/pé, na superfície mais complacente, o qual não foi observado nas superfícies mais rígidas (asfalto e concreto), assim como, surpreendentemente, no piso de borracha. O terceiro experimento respondeu que corredores com menos do que dois anos de experiência na corrida apresentam maiores picos de pressão de cerca de 10% em retropé e antepé em relação aos mais experientes (acima de 5 anos). A atenuação de cargas plantares observadas em corredores mais experientes pode estar relacionada à adoção de um padrão motor mais eficiente que resultaria em uma maior habilidade de acomodação da extremidade distal às cargas. Como conclusão, os resultados destes experimentos demonstram que tempos de prática menores que dois anos e correr no asfalto, concreto ou borracha promovem maiores sobrecargas plantares. A combinação tempo de experiência acima de 5 anos e correr na grama é a condição que mais promove atenuação de sobrecargas plantares / There has been an increase in the number of injuries proportional to the increase of the number of runner. This occurrence can be related to the weekly distance of trainings, lower extremities postural alignment, type of the selected footwear and the running, and the previous experience in running. The running surface can be considered as a extrinsic factor related to these injuries and has been currently studied. Although the results concerning its influence in the overloads of the locomotor system are controversial. The time of running experience can also be considered an important extrinsic factor that is still superficially studied so far. The objective of the present work was to investigate the influence of four different running surfaces (asphalt, concrete, natural gram and rubber) and of the previous running experience (up to 2 years, between 2 and 5 years and up to 5 years) in the plantar pressure distribution. Three experiments had been carried out to answer to the aims of the present work, each one with its particular casuistic: experiment 1 (n=44) and 2 (n=57) to answer the influence of the type of surface in plantar loads; and experiment 3 (n=126) to answer the influence of the running experience in the plantar pressures. Adults recreational runners (between 18 and 40 yrs old) run in the four studied surfaces over 40 meters in a speed of 12km/h where the plantar pressure was investigated by in-shoe capacitive insoles (Pedar X, Novel) placed inside an standardized sports footwear. To investigate the effect of the running experience, the measurements had only been carried out in asphalt. The two first experiments answered that the grass attenuated up to 16% the peak pressure in the lateral regions of the foot compared to the other surfaces, including the rubber whose behavior was similar to the asphalt and the concrete, considered rigid surfaces. This result can be attributed the more flexible movement strategies of the distal extremities, particularly of the foot/ankle complex, in the more compliant surface, which was not observed in the most rigid surfaces (asphalt and concrete), as well as, surprisingly, in the rubber surface. The third experiment answered that runners with less than two years of experience in the running practice presented greaters peak pressures of about 10% in the medial rearfoot and forefoot compared to the most experienced runners (up to 5 years). The plantar loads attenuation observed in the more experienced runners can be related to the adoption of a more efficient motor pattern that would result in a higher ability to accommodate loads in the lower extremity. In summary, the results of these experiments demonstrated that running practice experience of less than two years and running in asphalt, concrete or rubber promotes higher plantar loads. The combination time of experience up to 5 years and running in the grass is the condition that promotes more attenuation of plantar pressures

Os programas de computador têm apoiado o estudo de sistemas biomédicos em que um volume considerável de dados são empregados. Na biomecânica, a análise das influências entre as articulações pode melhorar o conhecimento das lesões relacionadas à corrida associadas ao uso excessivo durante a atividade de corrida. Compreender os padrões de interação entre diferentes articulações anatômicas, durante o movimento, pode contribuir para o aprimoramento de programas de treinamento, reabilitação e prevenção a lesões. Neste trabalho, um software personalizado foi desenvolvido para implementar a Coerência Parcial Direcionada (PDC), uma abordagem no domínio da freqüência da Causalidade de Granger (GC), adequado às especificidades da fisioterapia. Com entradas independentes e padronizadas, modularização e parametrização, as rotinas investigaram a direção de interação entre diferentes canais, registrando e salvando arquivos intermediários. Separados nos três planos anatômicos, sagital, frontal e transverso, foram utilizados dados cinemáticos para analisar as interações entre tornozelo, joelho, quadril, pelve e tronco durante a corrida. Três modificações de técnica de corrida foram abordadas: com aterrissagem iniciada com o antepé, com aumento de 10% na taxa de passo e com aumento de flexão de tronco, além da habitual. As análises foram realizadas para o ciclo completo (apoio e balanço) e com separação da fase de apoio, e revelaram que essas duas estratégias de processamento são complementares. Comparando as influências proximal e distal, os procedimentos sugeriram uma predominância das interações proximal a distal, mostrando uma origem central de movimentos. Dessa forma, destaca-se a relevância em controlar e fortalecer tronco e quadril para a minimização de lesões. Considerando os resultados e a oportunidade de configuração, o software pode ser empregado para estudar outras articulações e aplicações, bem como evoluir para um sistema automatizado de apoio à decisão. / Computer programs have supported the study of biomedical systems in which a considerable amount of data is employed. In biomechanics, analysis of influences between joints can improve the knowledge of the Running-Related-Injuries (RRI) associated to overuse during running activity. Understanding the patterns of interaction among anatomical joints during movement can contribute to the improvement of training, rehabilitation and injury prevention programs. In this work, a customized software was developed to implement Partial Directed Coherence (PDC), an approach in the frequency domain of Granger Causality (GC), adapted to the physical therapy specificities. With independent and standardized inputs, modularization and parameterization, the routines investigated the interaction direction between different channels, logging and saving intermediate files. Separated in the three anatomical planes, sagittal, frontal and transverse, kinematic data were employed to analyze the interactions between ankle, knee, hip, pelvis and trunk during running. Three running technique modifications were addressed: forefoot strike landing pattern, increasing 10% of the step rate and increasing trunk flexion, in addition to usual running. The analyzes were performed for the complete cycle (stance and swing) and with separation of the stance phase, and revealed that these two processing strategies are complementary. Comparing proximal and distal influences, procedures suggested a predominance of proximal to distal interactions, showing a central origin of movements. In this way, the importance of controlling and strengthening trunk and hip to minimize injuries is highlighted. Considering the results and the processing configuration opportunity, the software can be employed to study other joints and applications, as well as evolve to an automated decision support system.

A fasciite plantar, terceira lesão mais comum em corredores, apresenta como principais fatores etiológicos o alinhamento do retropé, o arco longitudinal plantar e a carga mecânica dos pés. Os únicos dois estudos que investigaram estes fatores, durante a corrida, permanecem controversos e ainda não claros, principalmente, em relação ao efeito da dor. Outra questão importante é o suporte teórico da associação entre as medidas clinicas dos pés com a carga mecânica no calcâneo, porém sem evidência científica comprovada. A compreensão dos padrões dinâmicos da carga plantar e a sua associação com as medidas clínicas do pé poderão perpetuar uma maior efetividade de recursos terapêuticos como calçados e palmilhas direcionadas a essa população. Portanto, o objetivo geral desse estudo foi avaliar o padrão de carga plantar e impacto dos pés em contato com o solo durante a corrida de corredores com fasciite plantar aguda e crônica e sua associação com o arco longitudinal medial e ângulo do retropé. Foram estudados 75 corredores adultos de ambos os sexos entre 20 a 55 anos. Destes 45 apresentavam fasciite plantar (30 com dor - FPA e 15 sem dor - FPC) e 30 eram corredores controles - GC. Para responder a questões específicas foram realizados dois experimentos. O primeiro teve como objetivo analisar e comparar as taxas de impacto estimadas e as cargas em três regiões distintas dos pés de corredores com fasciite plantar na fase aguda e crônica e corredores controle. A pressão plantar foi avaliada por meio de palmilhas capacitivas (Pedar X System) durante uma corrida de 40m a uma velocidade de 12±5%km/h, utilizando um calçado esportivo padrão. A dor foi mensurada pela escala visual analógica. As taxas de impacto e a carga plantar em retropé, mediopé e antepé foram analisadas em série temporal. Os dados foram processados no Matlab e comparados por ANOVAs (p<0,05). Os principais resultados indicam que a força máxima e integral da força no retropé e as taxas de impacto (20-80%; 10-100%) apresentam-se maiores em corredores com fasciite plantar em relação aos corredores controle (p<0,01). Porém, corredores com fasciite plantar na fase aguda apresentaram menores taxas de impacto e cargas plantares no retropé em relação à fase crônica (p<0,01). O segundo experimento teve como objetivo investigar a relação entre o arco longitudinal medial, o alinhamento do retropé e a dinâmica da pressão plantar em corredores com fasciite plantar: aguda e crônica. O índice do arco plantar e o alinhamento do retropé foram calculados no AutoCAD por meio de imagem fotográfica digital. Para análise da pressão plantar foi utilizado os dados previamente coletados no experimento 1 pelo sistema de palmilhas capacitivas (Pedar X System) durante a corrida. Uma análise de regressão múltipla foi realizada (p<0,05). Os resultados indicam que o arco plantar elevado pode predizer a integral da força (R=0,35, R2=0,15) e a força máxima (R=0,59, R2=0,35) no antepé na fase aguda e crônica, respectivamente. O alinhamento valgo do retropé prediz a força máxima no retropé na fase aguda (R=0,42, R2=0,18) e crônica (R=0,67, R2=0,45), além de predizer o aumento das taxas de impacto do pé na fase crônica da fasciite plantar, 20-80% (R=0,44, R2=0,19) e 10-100% (R=0,63, R2=0,40). Conclui-se que corredores com fasciite plantar aguda e crônica apresentam maiores cargas plantares no retropé e aumento das taxas de impacto do pé no solo. No entanto, a condição fasciite plantar aguda mostrou-se com menores taxas e cargas plantares no retropé em relação à fase crônica, possivelmente, devido ao mecanismo de proteção a dor na região do calcâneo. Além disso, o arco plantar prediz as cargas plantares do antepé de corredores com fasciite plantar e o alinhamento em valgo do retropé demonstrou ser uma medida clínica de fundamental importância para avaliação de corredores com fasciite plantar, pois permitiu predizer tanto o aumento das cargas e taxas de impacto na região do calcâneo e com isso, prevenir os sintomas e a progressão da fasciite plantar / The plantar fasciitis, the third most common injury in runners, presents as the main etiological factors rearfoot alignment, the longitudinal arch and mechanical load on the feet. The only two studies have investigated these factors during running and the results remain controversial and still not clear, specifically regarding the pain symptoms. Another important question is the theoretical support of the association between clinical measurements of the feet with the mechanical load on the heel, but without proven scientific evidence. Understanding the dynamic patterns of plant load and its association with clinical measures of foot may perpetuate more effective therapeutic resources, such as footwear and insoles that target this population. Therefore, the general objective of this study was to evaluate the load pattern and impact of plantar foot in contact with the ground during running in runners with acute and chronic plantar fasciitis and its association with the medial longitudinal arch and rearfoot angle. We studied 75 adult runners of both sexes between 20 and 55 years. Of these 45 had plantar fasciitis (pain-APF 30 with and 15 without pain - CPF) and 30 controls were runners - CG. To answer specific questions two experiments were conducted. The first aimed to analyze and compare the estimated impact rates and the plantar loads in runners with both acute and chronic PF, compared to controls. Seventy-five runners with heel contact running patterns were evaluated and divided into three groups: Acute PF (n=30); chronic PF (n=15); and controls (n=30). Pain was assessed by the Visual Analogue Scale. The plantar pressures was measured by X Pedar system during 40-meter running sessions at speeds of 12±5% Km/h with standard sport footwear. The impact rates and the loads over the rearfoot, midfoot, and forefoot were analyzed based upon temporal series. The data were processed in Matlab and compared by ANOVAs (p <0.05). The main results indicate that the maximum force and integral force in the rearfoot and impact rates (20-80%, 10-100%) were higher in runners with plantar fasciitis when compared with control runners (p <0.01). However, runners with plantar fasciitis in the acute phase showed lower impact rates and loads plantar on rearfoot in relation to chronic phase (p <0.01). The second experiment aimed to investigate the relationship between the medial longitudinal arch, rearfoot alignment and dynamic plantar pressure in runners with plantar fasciitis: acute and chronic. The plantar arch index and rearfoot alignment were calculated in AutoCAD using digital photographic image. For analysis of plantar pressure was used previously collected data in experiment 1 by the system of capacitive insoles (Pedar X System) during the running. A multiple regression analysis was performed (p <0.05). The results indicate that high plantar arch can predict the increase: integral force (R = 0.35, R2 = 0.15) and maximum force (R = 0.59, R2 = 0.35) in the forefoot in acute and chronic phase, respectively. The alignment of the rearfoot valgus predict the maximum force on rearfoot in the acute phase (R = 0.42, R2 = 0.18) and chronic (R = 0.67, R2 = 0.45), and predict increased rates impact of the foot during the chronic plantar fasciitis, 20-80% (R = 0.44, R2 = 0.19) and 10-100% (R = 0.63, R2 = 0.40). We conclude that runners with plantar fasciitis acute and chronic have higher plantar loads on rearfoot and increased rates of impact of the foot on the ground. However, the condition plantar fasciitis acute proved loads with lower impact rates and plantar load on rearfoot in relation to chronic phase, possibly due to the protective mechanism pain in calcaneal region. Moreover, the plantar arch predicts loads plantar in forefoot of the runners with plantar fasciitis and alignment in valgus rearfoot proved to be a measure of fundamental importance for clinical evaluation of runners with plantar fasciitis because it can predict the increase of the plantar loads and impact rates of calcaneal region and thus prevents the symptoms and progression of plantar fasciitis.

O objetivo deste estudo é analisar a influência de dois modelos distintos de calçado esportivo falsificado (indoor e jogging) sobre características dinâmicas e eletromiográficas da locomoção humana. Oito voluntários participaram do estudo, dos quais cinco realizaram os testes com os calçados do modelo indoor e três realizaram os testes com os calçados do modelo jogging, testando a versão original e falsificada de seus respectivos modelos de calçado durante a marcha e a corrida. Foram coletados dados referentes à força de reação do solo (FRS) (esteira com plataformas de força - Sistema GAITWAY) e à atividade eletromiográfica (EMG 1000 Sistema Lynx). Os resultados mostram o aumento de Fy1, Imp50 e Imp75 durante a marcha, e o aumento de Fy1 e GC1 durante a corrida com o uso do calçado falsificado indoor, caracterizando situações de maior sobrecarga e influência negativa deste calçado. Ao usar-se o calçado falsificado indoor, observou-se também alteração no envoltório linear dos músculos tibial anterior, vasto lateral, bíceps femoral e reto femoral durante a marcha, aumento do valor RMS do m. vasto lateral e m. reto femoral durante a marcha e aumento do valor RMS do m. gastrocnêmio lateral durante a corrida, provavelmente em resposta ao aumento da carga externa. Por outro lado, o uso do calçado falsificado jogging não induziu a nenhuma alteração nos parâmetros de FRS e atividade muscular analisados, em nenhum dos movimentos estudados. Conclui-se que diferentes modelos de calçado falsificado influenciam de forma distinta a sobrecarga imposta ao aparelho locomotor e o comportamento muscular durante a locomoção / The purpose of this study is to analyze the influence of two different types of falsified running shoes (indoor and jogging) upon dynamic and electromyographic characteristics during human locomotion. Eight subjects had participated of this study: five of them tested the original and falsified indoor running shoe, while three of them tested the original and falsified jogging running shoe. All subjects tested their shoes during walking and running. Data from ground reaction force (GRF) were obtained by a treadmill with force plates (GAITWAY System), while electromyographic data was obtained by EMG-1000 (LYNX System). The results show an increase in Fy1, Imp50 and Imp75 during walking and an increase in Fy1 and LR1 during running when wearing the falsified indoor running shoe, indicating a considerable increment in the mechanical load and a negative influence from this shoe. When wearing the falsified indoor running shoe, it is possible to observe alterations in the muscular activation pattern for the muscles Tibialis Anterior, Vastus Lateralis, Biceps Femoris and Rectus Femoris during walking; a higher RMS for m. Vastus Lateralis and m. Rectus Femoris during walking; and an increase in RMS for m. Gastrocnemius Lateralis during running. Probably, these alterations occurred in response to the higher external forces. On the other hand, the falsified jogging running shoe has not shown any alteration for GRF and muscular activation parameters. Its possible to conclude that different types of falsified running shoe can influence the mechanical load and the muscular behavior in different ways during locomotion

The aim of this work is to analyse and evaluate consumer and purchasing behaviour on the market for running equipment. Subsequently, to process the recommendations for business entities operating on this market. This work focuses on the quantitative research. On the basis of this research the analysis of consumer behaviour of runners is carried out. The analysis describes consumers' preferences in buying running equipment and describes differences between customers. The result of the analysis are the recommendations for businesses on the market for running equipment. One of the recommendation is the acquisition of the footscan, the testing track etc.

L'amélioration de la performance en course à pied, lors de courses sur du plat, raisonne avec l'actualité et l'objectif de voir un athlète descendre en dessous des deux heures sur Marathon. Cependant, il existe peu d'équipes travaillant de façon transverse sur les sujets de préparation et de stratégie de course à destination du grand public. Les programmes d'entraînement, fondés sur l'expérience des entraîneurs, ne sont pas, ou peu, personnalisés ce qui conduit à des risques de blessures et une perte de la motivation. Une limite de l'analyse actuelle des programmes d'entraînement semble avoir été atteinte et l'entreprise BillaTraining® a pour objectif de construire un pont entre la recherche scientifique et les coureurs amateurs.L'objectif principal de ce travail de thèse est double. Premièrement, nous avons essayé d'apporter une contribution à la recherche dans le domaine de la course à pied. Après avoir accumulé et formaté des données d'entraînements et de courses provenant de différentes sources, nous avons cherché à décrire des phénomènes tels que l'accélération humaine ou encore les différentes stratégies de course employées sur Marathon pour des coureurs dont les performances de durée de course sont comprises entre 2h30 et 4 heures.Deuxièmement, nous avons développé une application web intégrant les trois phases de la méthode BillaTraining®. La première étape est un audit énergétique qui n'est autre qu'un entraînement de trente minutes à la sensation, permettant de connaitre les capacités physiques d'un coureur. La second étape, le radar énergétique, est le bilan de l'audit et agit comme point d'entrée de l'entraînement sur-mesure qui est la troisième et dernière étape.Afin de répondre à ces deux objectifs, nous avons intégré des notions de physiologie, de mathématiques et d'informatique.Les connaissances en physiologie sont basées sur l'état de l'art ainsi que les recherches passées et présentes du professeur Véronique Billat. Par extension, il s'agit du coeur de métier de l'entreprise BillaTraining®. Les idées de recherche présentent dans cette thèse émanent de la physiologie.Les mathématiques, quand à elles, nous ont permis de décrire certains phénomènes physiologiques grâce notamment aux statistiques. Nous avons eu l'occasion d'utiliser le modèle d'Ornstein-Uhlenbeck de retour à la moyenne ou encore la méthode PELT (Pruned Exact Linear Time) pour la détection d'instants de ruptures dans une série temporelle.Finalement, l'informatique permet de faire communiquer les mathématiques et la physiologie à des fins de recherche scientifique et commerciales. / The improvement running performance has become a major topic lately. We are getting closer to running a marathon in under 2 hours. However, there are not so many professionals working transversally regarding pre-race and in-race preparation concerning the general public. Training plans are based on trainers' experience and are often not custom-made. This exposes the runners to injury risk and motivation loss. It seems that the current analysis of training plans has reached a limit. The aim for BillaTraining® is to go beyond this limit by connecting the research with the general public of runners.This PhD has two main goals. The first one is trying to contribute to the research about running. After gathering and formatting trainings and races data from different origins, we tried to isolate and describe how humans run marathons including 2.5 to 4-hour performances. We studied acceleration, speed and heart rate time series among other things, with the idea of understanding the different running strategies.The second one is the development of a web application embracing the three steps of the BillaTraining® method. The first step is an energetic audit which is a 30-minute running session guided by the runner's sensations. The second step is the energetic radar which is the results of the audit. The last step is a tailor-made training plan built depending on the runner's objectives.In order to come up with a solution, we had to bring together Physiology, Mathematics and Computer Science.The knowledge we had in Physiology was based on professor Véronique Billat's past and current researches. These researches are now part of BillaTraining® and are central for the growth of the company.We used Mathematics to try to describe physiological phenomenons thanks to Statistics. By applying the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model, we found that humans are able to run at an even acceleration. By using the PELT (Pruned Exact Linear Time) method we automated changepoints detection in time series.Finally, Computer Science allowed a communication between Physiology and Mathematics for research, as well as marketing training tools at the forefront of innovation.

Associado ao aumento do número de praticantes de corrida, houve o aumento proporcional no número de lesões em corredores. Esta ocorrência pode estar relacionada ao volume semanal de treino, aos desvios posturais em membros inferiores, ao tipo de calçado e ao piso selecionados para a prática da corrida, e até mesmo à experiência prévia na modalidade. A superfície de corrida pode ser considerada como um fator extrínseco relacionado a estas lesões e tem sido pesquisada atualmente mas com resultados controversos ainda quanto a sua influência nas sobrecargas do aparelho locomotor. Já, o tempo de experiência na corrida também pode ser considerado um importante fator extrínseco que foi até agora superficialmente estudado. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi investigar a influência de quatro diferentes superfícies de corrida (asfalto, concreto, grama natural e borracha) e da experiência prévia na prática da corrida (até 2 anos, entre 2 e 5 anos e acima de 5 anos) na distribuição da pressão plantar. Foram realizados 3 experimentos para responder aos objetivos do presente trabalho, cada um com sua casuística particular: experimento 1 (n=44) e 2 (n=57) para responder a influência do tipo de piso nas cargas plantares; e experimento 3 (n=126) para responder a influência da experiência da corrida nas pressões plantares. Em todos eles, corredores recreacionais adultos (entre 18 e 40 anos) correram nos 4 pisos estudados a uma velocidade de 12km/h em um trecho de 40 metros onde se investigou a pressão plantar por meio de palmilhas capacitivas (Pedar X, Novel) colocadas dentro de um calçado esportivo padronizado. Para investigar o efeito da experiência na corrida, as medições foram realizadas somente no asfalto. Os dois primeiros experimentos responderam que a grama atenuou em até 16% o pico de pressão plantar nas regiões laterais comparada aos demais pisos, inclusive à borracha cujo comportamento foi similar ao do asfalto e do concreto, superfícies consideradas rígidas. Este resultado pode ser atribuído a estratégias de movimento mais flexíveis das extremidades distais, particularmente do complexo tornozelo/pé, na superfície mais complacente, o qual não foi observado nas superfícies mais rígidas (asfalto e concreto), assim como, surpreendentemente, no piso de borracha. O terceiro experimento respondeu que corredores com menos do que dois anos de experiência na corrida apresentam maiores picos de pressão de cerca de 10% em retropé e antepé em relação aos mais experientes (acima de 5 anos). A atenuação de cargas plantares observadas em corredores mais experientes pode estar relacionada à adoção de um padrão motor mais eficiente que resultaria em uma maior habilidade de acomodação da extremidade distal às cargas. Como conclusão, os resultados destes experimentos demonstram que tempos de prática menores que dois anos e correr no asfalto, concreto ou borracha promovem maiores sobrecargas plantares. A combinação tempo de experiência acima de 5 anos e correr na grama é a condição que mais promove atenuação de sobrecargas plantares / There has been an increase in the number of injuries proportional to the increase of the number of runner. This occurrence can be related to the weekly distance of trainings, lower extremities postural alignment, type of the selected footwear and the running, and the previous experience in running. The running surface can be considered as a extrinsic factor related to these injuries and has been currently studied. Although the results concerning its influence in the overloads of the locomotor system are controversial. The time of running experience can also be considered an important extrinsic factor that is still superficially studied so far. The objective of the present work was to investigate the influence of four different running surfaces (asphalt, concrete, natural gram and rubber) and of the previous running experience (up to 2 years, between 2 and 5 years and up to 5 years) in the plantar pressure distribution. Three experiments had been carried out to answer to the aims of the present work, each one with its particular casuistic: experiment 1 (n=44) and 2 (n=57) to answer the influence of the type of surface in plantar loads; and experiment 3 (n=126) to answer the influence of the running experience in the plantar pressures. Adults recreational runners (between 18 and 40 yrs old) run in the four studied surfaces over 40 meters in a speed of 12km/h where the plantar pressure was investigated by in-shoe capacitive insoles (Pedar X, Novel) placed inside an standardized sports footwear. To investigate the effect of the running experience, the measurements had only been carried out in asphalt. The two first experiments answered that the grass attenuated up to 16% the peak pressure in the lateral regions of the foot compared to the other surfaces, including the rubber whose behavior was similar to the asphalt and the concrete, considered rigid surfaces. This result can be attributed the more flexible movement strategies of the distal extremities, particularly of the foot/ankle complex, in the more compliant surface, which was not observed in the most rigid surfaces (asphalt and concrete), as well as, surprisingly, in the rubber surface. The third experiment answered that runners with less than two years of experience in the running practice presented greaters peak pressures of about 10% in the medial rearfoot and forefoot compared to the most experienced runners (up to 5 years). The plantar loads attenuation observed in the more experienced runners can be related to the adoption of a more efficient motor pattern that would result in a higher ability to accommodate loads in the lower extremity. In summary, the results of these experiments demonstrated that running practice experience of less than two years and running in asphalt, concrete or rubber promotes higher plantar loads. The combination time of experience up to 5 years and running in the grass is the condition that promotes more attenuation of plantar pressures

It is well established that improved nutritional strategies can enhance both health and exercise performance. Scientific developments in recent years have furthered our understanding of cellular metabolism, which in turn, has provided an additional platform to investigate the impact of diet on health and adaptation. The overall aim of this research programme was to build on the current understanding of dietary intake in athletes and the impact dietary manipulation has on cellular and metabolic adaptation at rest and in combination with endurance training. It is postulated that nutrition is the most controllable risk factor impacting long-term health and chronic disease (World-Health-Organization, 2003), and enhanced knowledge of nutrition has been associated with improved dietary choices. A number of nutrition knowledge questionnaires have been developed to assess this; however the validity of each tool is reduced if implemented outside the target population. A valid and reliable general and sport nutrition knowledge questionnaire had not yet been developed. Using a parallel groups repeated measures study design (N = 101) the aim of the first experimental Chapter (Chapter 4) was to develop a new tool to measure general and sport nutrition knowledge in UK track and field athletes. Following the questionnaire design 53 nutrition educated and 48 non-nutrition educated participants completed the questionnaire on two occasions separated by three weeks. The results of the process demonstrated face and construct validity from the development of the question pool, content validity (the nutrition educated group scored > 30% higher that the non-nutrition educated group), reliability (test - retest correlation of 0.98, p < 0.05) and internal consistency (Chronbach's alpha value > 0.7) as such establishing a new tool (Nutrition knowledge Questionnaire for Athletes (NKQA)) for the assessment of general and sport nutrition knowledge in track and field athletes. Athletes' diets are commonly reported as inadequate and previous work has demonstrated a weak positive relationship between diet quality and nutrition knowledge. Additionally a commercially available tool, the metabolic typing questionnaire, claims to identify individual metabolic function and subsequently prescribe a personalised diet to optimise health. Thus the aim of the second experimental Chapter (Chapter 5) was to quantify nutrition knowledge (using the questionnaire developed in Chapter 4), measure diet intake and quality and investigate the efficacy of the metabolic typing questionnaire in UK track and field athletes. Using a parallel groups repeated measures design participants (UK track and field athletes n = 59, and non-athletic control group n = 29) completed a food diary, the NKQA and the metabolic typing questionnaire at two time points through the year (October and April) to investigate seasonal change. The results of the metabolic typing questionnaire concluded that 94.3% of the participants were the same dietary type and would subsequently have been prescribed the same diet. Athletes possess greater general and sport nutrition knowledge the non-athletes (60.4 ± 2.0 % vs. 48.6 ± 1.5 %) and also had better diet quality (76.8 ± 10.5 % vs. 67.6 ± 2.6 %). However no relationship was observed between individual nutrition knowledge score and diet quality (r2 = 0.003, p = 0.63). No difference in dietary intake was observed between power and endurance athletes; average diet intake consisted of 57.0% carbohydrate, 17.1% protein and 25.9% fat. The metabolic typing diet is based around three different diets: high carbohydrate, high protein and mixed diet. The results from Chapter 5 identified that the metabolic typing questionnaire was not able to differentiate between metabolic function in healthy individuals. Additionally all athletes, independent of event (power vs. endurance), consumed similar diets. With such similarities a clearer understanding of the impact such diets have at a cellular level is required. Therefore for the remainder of the thesis it was decided to investigate the impact of dietary manipulation utilising more robust measures. Mitochondria are responsible for energy production; their quantity and density have been associated with improved health and endurance performance. External stressors such as energy reduction, carbohydrate restriction and exercise are potent stimulators of transcription markers of mitochondrial biogenesis. Thus manipulating carbohydrate and energy availability in vivo may enhance cellular adaptation and limited literature exists on the impact increased protein intake has on this. The aim of Chapter 6 was to investigate the impact of acute (7-day) continuous dietary manipulation on metabolic markers, body composition and resting metabolic rate (RMR). Using a repeated measures parallel group (N = 45) design, participants were randomly assigned one of four diets: high protein hypocaloric, high carbohydrate hypocaloric, high protein eucaloric or high carbohydrate eucaloric. The macronutrient ratio of the high protein diets was 40% protein, 30 % carbohydrate and 30% fat, the high carbohydrate diets were 10% protein, 60% carbohydrate and 30% fat. Energy intake in the hypocaloric diets was matched to resting metabolic rate (RMR). Participants consumed habitual diet for 7-days then baseline measures were collected (skeletal muscle biopsy, dual energy X-ray absorptiometry scan (DXA) and RMR, habitual diet was consumed for a further 7-days and repeat testing was completed (these time points were used as a control), the intervention diet was then consumed for 7-days and post measures were collected. The results of the skeletal muscle biopsy demonstrated no group x time interaction in any marker, however a pre-post time difference subsequent to the high protein hypocaloric diet (the diet which induced the greatest metabolic stress) was observed in four transcriptional markers of mitochondrial biogenesis (pre-post intervention fold increase: PCG1-α 1.27, AMPK 2.09, SIRT1 1.5, SIRT3 1.19, p < 0.05). The results of the DXA scan demonstrated that the high protein hypocaloric group lost significantly more fat mass than the high carbohydrate eucaloric group (-0.99 kg vs. -0.50 kg, p < 0.015). Irrespective of macronutrient ratio, no energy-matched between group difference was observed in lean mass (LM) loss. However when matched for macronutrient ratio the high protein diet attenuated LM loss to a greater extent that the high carbohydrate diet, suggesting an important role of increased protein intake in the maintenance of lean mass. No time point or group difference in RMR was observed. This data suggests that a high protein low carbohydrate hypocaloric diet may provide a stimulus to promote skeletal muscle metabolic adaptation. The aim of the final experimental Chapter (Chapter 7) in this thesis was to explore the impact exercise in combination with a high protein diet on metabolic adaptation, substrate utilisation and exercise performance in well trained runners. Using a parallel groups repeated measures study design the participants (well-trained endurance runners, N = 16) consumed normal habitual diet for 7-days, then 7-days intervention diet (high protein eucaloric or high carbohydrate eucaloric, same dietary ratios as Chapter 6) and finally returned to habitual diet for 7-days, training was consistent throughout. A pre exercise muscle biopsy was taken subsequent to each diet and immediately followed by a 10 km sub-maximal run and a time to exhaustion run (TTE) at 95% of velocity at maximal aerobic capacity (vV̇O2max). Post intervention the high protein group presented significant changes in sub-maximal substrate utilisation with 101% increase in fat oxidation (0.59 g·min-1, p = 0.0001). No changes were observed in substrate utilisation in the high carbohydrate group. A trend towards a reduction in average weekly running speed was observed in the PRO group (-0.9 km·h-1), the high carbohydrate group maintained the same training speed. TTE was decreased (-23.3%, p = 0.0003) in the high protein group subsequent to the intervention, no change was observed in subsequent to the high carbohydrate diet. / The high carbohydrate group demonstrated preferential increases in markers of metabolic adaptations (fold increase: AMPK = 1.44 and PPAR = 1.32, p < 0.05) suggesting that training intensity, rather than carbohydrate restriction, may be a more profound driver of metabolic adaptation. All performance measures, in both groups, returned to pre intervention levels once habitual diet was returned; however the increased gene expression observed in the high carbohydrate group remained elevated 7-days post intervention. The increased metabolic stress imposed by reducing carbohydrate intake did not increase transcriptional markers of mitochondrial biogenesis. For continuous endurance training and high intensity endurance performance a high carbohydrate diet is preferential to a high protein diet.

Existe uma alta incidência de desigualdade de membros inferiores na população geral, podendo ser do tipo estrutural, onde existe diferença no comprimento de estruturas ósseas, ou funcional, como resultado de alterações mecânicas dos membros inferiores (MMII). A desigualdade pode ainda ser classificada quanto a sua magnitude, sendo discreta, moderada, ou grave. São muitos os métodos antropométricos utilizados para avaliar a desigualdade, entre os mais usados estão os métodos clínicos, como o uso de fita métrica para medir a distância entre duas saliências ósseas. Além destes, os métodos radiográficos também podem ser usados, porém com menor freqüência devido ao custo elevado e exposição à radiação. As desigualdades discretas têm sido associadas especificamente à fratura por estresse, dor lombar e osteoartrite. Quando uma desigualdade está presente em indivíduos cuja sobrecarga mecânica é acentuada pela sua prática profissional, diária ou recreativa, estas desordens podem se manifestar precoce e gravemente. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar diversas medidas antropométricas de comprimento de MMII usadas na prática clínica com a escanometria em corredores, e estudar a Força Reação do Solo durante a marcha e a corrida de corredores com desigualdade estrutural discreta de membros inferiores. Observou-se que a presença de desigualdade de membros inferiores foi associada à maior incidência de sintomas nos quadris e joelhos nos corredores. As medidas clínicas EIAS/MM (R=0,96; p=0,000), EIAS/ML (R=0,97; p=0,000), Crista/MM (R=0,95; p=0,000) e Umbigo/MM (R=0,92; p=0,000) apresentaram alta correlação com a escanometria. Entretanto, somente a medida clínica Umbigo/MM (0,8 ± 0,6 cm; 0,8 ± 0,5%) detectou desigualdade absoluta e normalizada entre os membros semelhante à escanometria (0,6 ± 0,5 cm; 0,8 ± 0,6%). Observou-se que quanto maior a desigualdade, maior a sobrecarga em ambos MMII, cargas estas capazes de causar em longo prazo desordens ortopédicas. Os sujeitos com desigualdade de 0,5 a 2,0 cm, durante o andar, apresentaram no MI menor maiores valores de Fzmin (0,56 ± 0,08 PC); e maiores valores de Fz2 e PO no MI menor durante o correr (2,48 ± 0,22 PC; 17,18 ± 3,35 PC/s). E os sujeitos com desigualdade de 1,0 a 2,2 cm apresentaram no MI maior uma menor Taxa de Crescimento 1 (9,19 ± 1,49 PC/s) em comparação ao controle (10,44 ± 1,72 PC/s) durante o andar; maiores valores de Fz1 no MI maior (1,70 ± 0,17 PC) em relação ao controle (1,57 ± 0,16PC), e ainda maiores valores de Fz2 e PO no MI menor (2,55 ± 0,22 PC; 17,07 ± 3,31 PC/s) durante o correr. No entanto, os sujeitos com desigualdade discreta de membros inferiores apresentaram a marcha e a corrida simétricas de acordo com os valores obtidos pelo Índice de Simetria Absoluto das variáveis da FRS vertical e horizontal. / There is a high incidence of leg length discrepancy (LLD) in general population, which could be structural, when the difference occurs in bone structures, or functional, as a result of mechanical changes at the lower limbs. The discrepancy can also be classified by its magnitude, being mild, intermediate, or severe. Many anthropometric methods are used to evaluate discrepancy, however the most common are clinical methods, which use a tape to measure the distance between two bone landmarks. Radiographic methods can also be used, although they are characterized by high cost and radiation exposure. Mild LLD has been associated with stress fractures, lower back pain and osteoarthritis. When the discrepancy occurs in subjects whose mechanical loads are increased by their professional, daily or recreational activities, these disorders might appear early and severely. The aim of this study was to compare several anthropometric measurements of LLD used in clinical practice with the scanogram in runners, and to study the ground reaction forces during gait and running in runners with mild and structural LLD. Results demonstrated an association between LLD and higher incidence of symptoms in runners\' hips and knees. Clinical measures ASIS/MM (R=0.96; p=0.000), ASIS/LM (R=0.97; p=0.000), Crest/MM (R=0.95; p=0.000) and Umbilicus/MM (R=0.92; p=0.000) presented high correlation with scanogram. Although, only the clinical measurement Umbilicus/MM (0.8 ± 0.6 cm; 0.8 ± 0.5%) detected absolute and relative discrepancy between lower limbs similar to that detected with scanogram (0.6 ± 0.5 cm; 0.8 ± 0.6%). Results also showed that increasing discrepancy leads to overloads in both lower limbs, which may lead to orthopedic disorders after extended periods. Subjects with mild LLD of 0.5 to 2.0 cm presented higher values of Fzmin (0.56 ± 0.08 BW) at the shorter limb during gait, and higher values of Fz2 and PO at the shorter limb (2.48 ± 0.22 BW; 17.18 ± 3.35 BW/s) during running. Subjects with mild discrepancy of 1.0 to 2.2 cm presented a smaller rate of load 1 (9.19 ± 1.49 BW/s) at the longer limb during gait in comparison to control subjects (10.44 ± 1.72 BW/s), and higher values of Fz1 at the longer limb during running (1.70 ± 0,17BW ) relative to control subjects (1.57 ± 0.16PC). Subjects with mild discrepancy also showed higher values of Fz2 and PO at the shorter limb (2.55 ± 0.22 BW; 17.07 ± 3.31 BW/s). Nevertheless, subjects with mild LLD displayed symmetrical gait and running according to values obtained by Absolute Symmetric Index of vertical and horizontal GRF variables.