Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-25T18:40:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Jose Milton Almeida da Silva.pdf: 951427 bytes, checksum: 2eb314059433ac66640426ac17114465 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-10-05 / The central goal of this research was to increase the debating about efficacy from rules, legal actions and Corporate governance to protect the non qualified minority shareholders in the Brazilian IPOs (Initial Public Offering) programs. The theme has showed growing interest, because the number of personal investors and the Bovespa s (São Paulo Stock Exchange) IPO market has been in progress strongly. The event study was the methodology used to measure the abnormal returns in the portfolio s samples with between 23 and 98 shares from 106 IPOs going public in 2004-07, using de market price from January, 2004 to June, 2008. Further, four statistic tests were applied to detect if the speculative bubble dynamic affected the Bovespa from January, 1999 to June, 2008. The empiric results from event study evidenced the overpricing phenomenon measured from the offering price to the market price at the end of the first day of trading estimated between 4,80% and 9,26%, and a underpricing phenomenon in the sequel. The cumulative average abnormal returns, ruled out of the first day return, achieved -11,52% at the end of the 6º month, -16,60% at the end of the 12º month and -35,74% at the end of the 24º month, presented a underperfomance phenomenon with economic and statistic significance, widely documented by the academy, specially on the north American capital market. The empiric results from four statistic tests showed, with statistic significance, that speculative bubble dynamic affected the Ibovespa (Index of São Paulo Stock Exchange) in the period from January, 1999 to June, 2008. Thus, evidences were found of the minority shareholders that bought shares in the Bovespa s IPOs programs in the studied period were induced by market anomalies to overpay the share s portfolios. Consequently, the research suggests that actions to improve the rules, legal actions and Corporate governance is necessary to protect of the non qualified minority shareholders in the Brazilian capital market / Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo central ampliar as discussões quanto à eficácia das normas, procedimentos e Governança Corporativa na proteção dos acionistas minoritários não qualificados nos processos de IPO s (Initial Public Offering) ou abertura de capital das companhias no mercado de capitais brasileiro. O tema apresenta importância crescente em face do recente aumento do número de investidores individuais e do forte incremento do mercado de IPO s na Bolsa de Valores de São Paulo (Bovespa). A metodologia empregada foi um estudo de evento para a identificação da presença de retornos anormais em carteiras compostas por uma amostra entre 23 e 98 ações de um total de 106 IPO s realizados na Bovespa entre 2004 e 2007, abrangendo as cotações das ações no período entre janeiro de 2004 e junho de 2008. Também foram realizados quatro testes estatísticos visando detectar indícios da presença da dinâmica de bolha especulativa na Bovespa no período entre janeiro de 1999 e junho de 2008. Os resultados empíricos do estudo de evento demonstraram evidências de sobre-valorização nos preços das ações no primeiro dia de negociação, com retornos anormais entre 4,80% e 9,26%, seguida de significativas quedas nas cotações subseqüentes. Os retornos anormais médios acumulados, excluído o retorno do 1° dia, atingiram -11,52% no final do 6º mês, -16,60% no final do 12º mês e -35,74% no final do 24º mês, evidenciando relevantes perdas de valor das carteiras analisadas no período, tanto em termos econômicos quanto em nível de significância estatística, caracterizando o fenômeno da underperformance, amplamente documentado pela academia, notadamente no mercado de capitais norte-americano. Os resultados dos testes estatísticos demonstraram indícios, com significância estatística, da presença da dinâmica de bolha especulativa na formação do Índice da Bolsa de Valores de São Paulo (Ibovespa) no período entre janeiro de 1999 e junho de 2008. Desse modo, foram encontradas evidências de que os acionistas minoritários que participaram dos processos de IPO s na Bovespa no período estudado foram induzidos, por anomalias de mercado, ao pagamento de valores acima dos preços justos das carteiras de ações. Como conseqüência, a pesquisa sugere a necessidade do aperfeiçoamento dos mecanismos de proteção dos acionistas minoritários não qualificados no mercado de capitais brasileiro

Corporate Governance (CG) nowadays is on the agenda of most developed and developing countries, including Jordan, and is receiving considerable attention in the business world as well as in the area of academic research, which is an indication of its importance for business development and society as a whole. The knowledge base about CG in developing countries appears to be limited, but it is growing in size and importance. This study therefore aims to investigate current CG practices and barriers to the development of good CG practices in firms. In order to accomplish the research objectives, a mixed research methodology was adopted. The findings of the study contribute to knowledge by providing empirical data to test and extend the theory of CG. The results suggest that most big and old firms are applying best practice of good CG. Regarding factors inhibiting the practice of effective CG, the results indicate that weakness of the legal environment for firms and lack of knowledge of BODs about CG principles are the most important factors. The empirical results find that constitution, compliance and conscience will affect firm’s performance positively. Separation between the position of CEO and Chairman, the existence of independent NEDs, the use of board subcommittees and a strong disclosure regime also help firms to improve performance. On the basis of the empirical results, the study recommends that the government needs to reform the relevant legislation. These suggestions may strengthen the internal governance of firms, thereby increasing performance and maximise shareholders’ wealth.

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier le rôle des actionnaires contrôleurs dans la prise de décisions financières des entreprises. En particulier, elle met l’accent sur l’effet de la présence et du pouvoir de vote des actionnaires contrôleurs multiples (ACM) sur la prise de risque de l’entreprise, la maturité de la dette et le choix de la source d’endettement. La thèse est composée de trois essais sur le rôle que peuvent jouer les ACM en termes de gouvernance d’entreprise.Le premier essai, intitulé étudie le rôle des ACM dans la prise de risque au sein de l’entreprise. L’utilisation d’un échantillon d’entreprises familiales françaises cotées en bourse sur la période 2003‒2012 montre que la présence, le nombre et le pouvoir de vote des ACM sont associés à une prise de risque plus élevée. Les résultats suggèrent que les ACM contribuent à limiter la propension des propriétaires familiaux à entreprendre des investissements à faible risque. Cet effet est beaucoup plus fort dans les entreprises où les conflits d’agence sont plus susceptibles d’exister. Les résultats mettent en évidence l’importance du rôle de gouvernance joué par les ACM et peuvent améliorer notre compréhension de l’effet de ces actionnaires sur la performance des entreprises familiales.Le deuxième essai, examine le rôle que peuvent jouer les ACM dans la détermination de la maturité de la dette de leurs entreprises. La littérature en gouvernance d’entreprise a montré que les actionnaires contrôleurs peuvent détourner à leurs profits les ressources de leurs entreprises au détriment des autres actionnaires. Un tel comportement conduit ces actionnaires dominants à préférer l’endettement à long terme pour réduire la fréquence du contrôle effectué par les créanciers, ce qui peut créer des conflits entre l’actionnaire dominant et les actionnaires minoritaires portant sur la structure de la maturité de la dette. Dans ce chapitre, nous examinons si la présence des ACM contribue à atténuer ces conflits. À partir de données collectées sur des entreprises françaises cotées en bourse et observées sur la période 1998‒2013, nous trouvons que les entreprises avec des ACM ont tendance à se financer par des dettes à court terme. Ce résultat suggère que la présence des ACM réduit l’extraction de bénéfices privés par l’actionnaire contrôleur, ce qui permet d’enrayer sa tendance à préférer l’endettement à long terme.Le troisième essai, intitulé examine l’effet de la présence et du pouvoir de vote des ACM sur le choix de la source de la dette. Nous utilisons un échantillon de 6 238 observations couvrant 654 entreprises françaises cotées sur la période 1998‒2013. Nous constatons que la présence des ACM et leur pouvoir de vote augmentent le recours à la dette bancaire. De plus, nous trouvons que l’effet des ACM sur le choix de la dette est plus important lorsque les problèmes d’agence entre l’actionnaire dominant et les actionnaires minoritaires sont plus sévères. Dans l’ensemble, nos résultats suggèrent que les ACM réduisent l’opportunisme de l’actionnaire majoritaire qui cherche à se prémunir contre la surveillance bancaire, conduisant à plus de dépendance à l’égard de la dette bancaire. / The present dissertation is a collection of three essays. The first one investigates the role of multiple large shareholders (MLS) in corporate risk-taking. Using a sample of publicly listed French family firms over the period 2003‒2012, we show that the presence, number and voting power of MLS, beyond the controlling owner, are associated with higher risk-taking. Our results suggest that MLS help restrain the propensity of family owners to undertake low-risk investments. This effect is much stronger in firms that are more susceptible to agency conflicts. The results highlight the important governance role played by MLS in family firms and may explain why MLS are associated with higher firm performance.The second essay studies the relation between MLS, beyond the controlling owner, and corporate debt maturity. We employ a large data set of French publicly traded firms during the period 1998–2013 and we find strong evidence that firms with MLS exhibit shorter debt maturity. This result indicates that MLS curb the extraction of private benefits by the controlling owner and reduce her preference for less monitoring through the use of longer maturity debt. The findings are robust to a number of checks, including addressing endogeneity concerns and using alternative sample compositions and alternative regression frameworks.The third essay examines the effect of MLS on the choice of debt source. Using a sample of 6,238 firm–year observations covering 654 French listed firms from 1998 to 2013, we show that reliance on bank debt financing increases with the presence of MLS and with their contestability of the controlling owner’s power. Moreover, we find that the effect of MLS on debt choice is more pronounced when agency problems between controlling and minority shareholders are more severe. Taken together, our results suggest that the presence of MLS reduces the incentive of the controlling owner to avoid scrutiny and to insulate herself from bank monitoring, leading to more reliance on bank debt.

[pt] A proposta desta dissertação é analisar a eficácia de contratos privados como mecanismos para um maior comprometimento da firma em relação aos seus acionistas minoritários. Para tanto, investigou-se uma amostra de empresas brasileiras de capital aberto no período de 1997 a 2001. Em dois testes econométricos, encontrou-se evidência de que o lançamento de ADR Nível II e a presença no grupo diferenciado de governança da BOVESPA foram relevantes para uma menor diluição dos acionistas minoritários e para uma performance diferenciada da firma em momentos de choques de retorno. Apesar da importância de uma legislação societária mais rígida também ter sido constatada, a conclusão desta dissertação caminha para a eficácia de contratos privados que realmente imponham regras mais rígidas de governança. / [en] This dissertation uses a sample of Brazilian firms in the period 1997 to 2001 to investigate the effectiveness of alternative corporate governance mechanisms. The data show that firms can commit to protect their minority shareholders by issuing Level II ADRs -American Depository Receipt- or joining the Novo Mercado -firms listed in the BOVESPA that agree with stricter governance practices-. In particular, firms with Level II ADRs and firms in the Novo Mercado have larger stock returns in times of turmoil, and they are more likely to pay dividends. The study shows, however, that changes in corporate law affect the ability of private contracts like ADRs to protect minority shareholders.As such, firms cannot completely overcome weaknesses in the Brazils legal system that harm minority shareholders.

O presente trabalho visa a estudar a regulamentação existente a respeito da relação de substituição de ações em operações de incorporação de sociedades e incorporação de ações. Para tanto, serão abordados os dispositivos legais, as posições doutrinárias e as interpretações da jurisprudência sobre o assunto no Brasil e em Direito Comparado. No primeiro capítulo, são estudados os institutos da incorporação e da incorporação de ações, analisando-se a natureza jurídica dessas operações e os procedimentos para realização de cada uma delas. No segundo capítulo, examina-se propriamente a relação de substituição de ações e sua natureza jurídica para, na sequência, analisarmos o arcabouço legal em que se insere a determinação da relação de troca de ações. Nesse contexto, são abordados os critérios, parâmetros e requisitos que norteiam a sua definição, bem como os mecanismos legais previstos pela legislação societária para compor os diferentes interesses envolvidos, notadamente aqueles dos acionistas minoritários e do controlador. O terceiro capítulo analisa algumas especificidades relativas às operações de incorporação que envolvem companhias abertas, operações de incorporação englobando sociedades sob controle comum, diferentes relações de substituição de ações entre ações de diferentes espécies e classes e, por fim, entre ações da mesma espécie e classe. Finalmente, a conclusão arremata as principais ideias discutidas ao longo deste trabalho. / This paper aims at analyzing the existing regulation regarding the share exchange ratio in mergers and merger of shares (incorporação de ações). For this purpose, this work will examine the legal provisions, the different doctrinal positions and case law understandings relating to this matter under Brazilian Law and Comparative Law. The first chapter of this paper presents the concepts of the merger and merger of shares and analyzes the nature of such transactions and the procedures necessary for their performance. The second chapter examines the share exchange ratio and its nature, followed by an analysis of the legal environment in which such share exchange ratio is determined. In this sense, this paper analyzes the criteria, parameters and requirements that drive the determination of the share exchange ratio, as well as the legal provisions established by Corporate Law to assure that all interests involved in such transactions are addressed, mainly those of minority shareholders as opposed to those of the controlling shareholders. The third chapter analyzes certain special situations concerning mergers and mergers of shares that involve publicly held corporations or corporations under common control. This chapter also analyzes special cases regarding the establishment of different share exchange ratios between different types and classes of shares and between shares of the same type and class. Finally, the conclusion of this work summarizes the main ideas discussed herein.

The classical corporation, as described by Berle and Means (1932), was characterized by ownership that is dispersed between many small shareholders, yet control was concentrated in the hands of managers. This ownership structure created the conflict of interest between managers and dispersed shareholders. More recent empirical work (see, e.g., La Porta et al. (1999) and Barca and Becht (2001)) has shown that ownership in many countries around the world is typically concentrated in the hands of a small number of large shareholders. As a result, an equally important agency conflict arises between large controlling shareholders and minority shareholders. On the one hand, large shareholders can benefit minority shareholders by monitoring managers (Shleifer and Vishny, 1986, 1997). On the other hand, large shareholders can be harmful if they pursue private goals that differ from profit maximization or if they reduce valuable managerial incentives (Shleifer and Vishny, 1997; and Burkart et al., 1997). In the presence of several large shareholders, a conflict of interest may arise between these controlling shareholders (see, e.g., Zwiebel (1995), Pagano and Röell (1998), and Bennedsen and Wolfenzon (2000)). They can compete for control, monitor each other, or form controlling coalitions to share private benefits. The question arises as to what determines the role of controlling shareholders in various firm policies and performance. Previous literature has noted that the incentives to expropriate minority shareholders are often exacerbated by the fact that the capital invested by the controlling shareholders is relatively lower than the voting control they achieve through the use of dual class shares (i.e., shares with differential voting rights) or stock pyramids (e.g., Claessens et al., 2002). Moreover, the identity of the shareholder (e.g., family vs. financial institution) is important for understanding the role of controlling shareholders (see, e.g., Holderness and Sheehan (1988), Volpin (2002), Claessens et al. (2002), and Burkart et al. (2003)). Using Swedish data, Cronqvist and Nilsson (2003) show that the agency costs of family owners are larger than the agency costs of other controlling owners. The role of controlling shareholders in transition countries is exacerbated by the fact that the legal and general institutional environment remains underdeveloped. In such an environment, strong owners may be the second best option to weak legal protection of investors (La Porta et al., 1997, 1998). The transition countries of central and eastern Europe are experiencing increasingly concentrated control structures, typically with the controlling owner actively involved in the management of the firm (Berglöf and Pajuste, 2003). Moreover, experience from transition countries suggests that foreign direct investment, where investors take controlling positions, have been critical to the successful restructuring of privatized firms. This thesis consists of four self-contained chapters that empirically examine various corporate governance issues. The common theme throughout the thesis is the focus on large shareholders, their identity, as well as to whether they deviate from the principle of one share-one vote. In particular, I examine the effect of large shareholders on firm value (in the first and third chapters), dividend policies (in the second chapter), and stock returns (in the final chapter). The first two chapters employ the data from Finland, the third looks at companies in seven European countries where deviations from one share-one vote are common, and the final one explores the evidence from transition countries. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2004

Il lavoro ha affrontato la tematica riguardante la disciplina del trasferimento delle azioni. In particolare, l'attenzione si è concentrata sulla formalità dell'iscrizione nel libro soci. A tale riguardo, si è posto il problema di comprendere se essa costituisca ancora il mezzo necessario per il conseguimento dello status socii. Con riferimento alle s.p.a. che emettono titoli, si è ravvisato nel possesso qualificato del titolo l'unico indice di legittimazione necessario e sufficiente in caso di trasferimento a mezzo girata, riconoscendo all'iscrizione nel libro soci la funzione di elemento necessario (ma comunque insufficiente, se isolatamente considerato) all'acquisto della legittimazione in caso di trasferimento dell'azione per atto separato e di circolazione mortis causa. Si è, comunque, escluso che le novità introdotte abbiano surrettiziamente trasformato le azioni in titoli all'ordine. In assenza di titoli, si è evidenziato che l'iscrizione ha sempre funzione legittimante come accade in caso di trasferimento di quote di s.r.l. In presenza di azioni dematerializzate, si è sottolineato che l'iscrizione nel libro soci perde ogni funzione legittimante, posto che l'avente causa acquista lo status di socio tramite registrazione sul conto tenuto dall'intermediario. Si è giunti alla conclusione che, al di là della funzione cartolare, a-cartolare o scritturale, l'annotazione nel libro soci rappresenta, esaltando il suo ruolo organizzativo, l'unico strumento che l'emittente ha a disposizione per riconoscere i propri soci ed avere contezza dei suoi assetti proprietari e delle vicende relative alle partecipazioni dallo stesse emesse. / The work concerned the issue about the circulation of shares. In particular, the attention is concentrated around the registration on shareholders' book. In this respect, the difficulty lied in understanding if the registration is still the instrument for the achievement of status socii. About the corporations which issue paper securities, the only instrument (necessary and sufficient) for the ability to exercise the shareholders' rights if the share is transferred by endorsement is the security's qualified possession. The registration on shareholders' book is the necessary, but not sufficient, instrument for the ability to exercise the shareholders' rights if the share is transferred by separate contract and if the share is transferred mortis causa. Anyway, the recent reform confirmed that the shares are registered securities. About the corporations which don't issue paper securities, the registration is always the instrument for the ability to exercise the shareholders' rights, like it happens in case of circulation of unlimited liability company's stakes. About the corporations which issue dematerialized securities (in particular, listed companies), the registration isn't the instrument for the ability to exercise the shareholders' rights, because the buyer achieves status socii by the registration on intermediary's account. In short, the registration on shareholders' book is the only instrument which the legal system puts at corporation's disposal to know its shareholders and the events about its shares.

La tesi di dottorato su “La tutela dei soci e dei creditori nella fusione concordataria” si compone di tre capitoli. Nel primo, il lavoro muove dalla constatazione della (apparente) marginalità dell’istituto oggetto di indagine, rispetto al quale scarsa è stata finora l’attenzione dedicata dalla letteratura italiana ed alquanto esigua risulta la casistica giurisprudenziale. Viene, quindi, individuata nella carenza di coordinamento normativo tra la disciplina (ed i procedimenti) di diritto societario e diritto concorsuale la causa della trascurabile diffusione pratica dell’istituto e la conseguente necessità di un lavoro di ricostruzione interpretativa tutt’altro che agevole. La revisione critica dell’istituto muove – quindi ed inevitabilmente – dalla valutazione dell’ammissibilità di una fusione concordataria nell’ambito di concordati aventi finalità tanto conservative, quanto liquidative; e ciò considerando sia la possibile applicazione analogica dell’art. 2499 c.c., che in tema di trasformazione consente la realizzazione dell’operazione solo in quanto compatibile con le finalità e lo stato della procedura; sia la modalità in cui le altre (principali) esperienze giuridiche hanno affrontato le problematiche connesse alla fusione come strumento di soluzione concordata della crisi. Tale questione viene positivamente risolta, da un lato, sottolineando l’importanza sistematica e l’innegabile valore innovativo degli artt. 124 e 160 l. fall., per la parte in cui disciplinano la vasta gamma di soluzioni di cui il soggetto proponente dispone nella redazione dell’offerta concordataria: e ciò, in particolare, se si considera che le procedure di auto-regolamentazione della crisi o dell’insolvenza rappresentano soluzioni alternative al procedimento fallimentare e, quindi, derogatorie dello stesso; dall’altro lato, ponendo l’accento sulle soluzioni, tutte tendenzialmente positive, accolte dagli altri ordinamenti giuridici in ordine alla possibilità di contemplare un’operazione di fusione come modalità esecutiva di un piano di regolazione della crisi o dell’insolvenza. Il lavoro passa - nel secondo capitolo - ad individuare gli interessi coinvolti dall’operazione e ne trae spunto al fine della preventiva indicazione dei problemi posti dalla fusione concordataria. Si distinguono, al riguardo, due differenti serie di interessi: quello dei soci della società in procedura, e quello dei suoi creditori sociali. Quanto ai primi, il pregiudizio alla loro posizione è riconducibile alla risalente controversia sulla conservazione della qualità di socio, alla luce della inevitabile riduzione del valore (quantomeno) contabile del patrimonio dell’impresa in procedura. Viene innanzitutto valutata l’ipotesi in cui il valore contabile del capitale risulti azzerato, con la conseguente ammissibilità dell’operazione di fusione solo nel caso in cui il valore reale del patrimonio risulti più elevato di quello contabile e quindi idoneo a consentire la compenetrazione (non solo patrimoniale, ma anche) delle relative compagini sociali; quindi, viene esaminata la diversa circostanza in cui - sebbene il patrimonio dell’ente in concordato conservi un valore anche contabile positivo - alcuni soci si ritrovino a possedere, all’indomani della concentrazione e per effetto della determinazione di un determinato concambio, una partecipazione inferiore al minimo convertibile, venendo così di fatto “esclusi” dall’ente incorporante o risultante dall’operazione. In entrambe le vicende, viene poi affrontata (e risolta positivamente) l’ammissibilità di una decisione maggioritaria dei soci, pure da taluno revocata in dubbio in favore del principio unanimistico, là dove venga leso il diritto di ciascuno alla conservazione della status soci: e ciò, sia in considerazione della previsione legislativa che limita il conguaglio in denaro al dieci per cento delle partecipazioni assegnate, con ciò indirettamente escludendo la possibilità di conguagli totalmente compensativi della posizione di singoli soci, cui non venga riservata alcuna partecipazione nella società post-fusione; sia considerando che la congruità del concambio, la conformità alle regole previste a protezione dei diritti (informativi) dei soci e, in ogni caso, la presenza di contesti in cui sono esperibili i rimedi societari destinati (dal legislatore) assicurano il “ristoro” per eventuali pregiudizi sofferti dai titolari di quote minime di partecipazione al capitale. Quanto al rischio cui sono esposti i creditori della società in concordato, l’analisi viene condotta su due differenti “binari”: i creditori che concorrono all’approvazione del piano restano infatti esposti al rischio che la proposta in cui hanno riposto (con l’approvazione) speranza di soddisfazione subisca una battuta d’arresto a causa della mancata approvazione assembleare del progetto di fusione; i creditori contrari alla proposta di concordato corrono invece il rischio che le decisioni maggioritarie di approvazione della proposta possano (eventualmente) pregiudicare i propri interessi, privi (in assenza di classi) di qualsiasi rimedio endo-concorsuale ed esposti al mancato riconoscimento del rimedio oppositivo previsto – in ambito squisitamente societario – dall’art. 2503 c.c. Una volta individuati gli eventuali pregiudizi cui sono esposti i soci ed i creditori della società in concordato, vengono ricostruiti i rimedi tesi alla tutela delle rispettive posizioni; e proprio a tale profilo è dedicato il terzo capitolo, suddiviso in due sezioni. Nella prima, ci si sofferma sulla questione se la perdita della qualità di socio possa essere in qualche modo evitata o, ricorrendo determinate condizioni, se tale pregiudizio possa trovare adeguato ristoro: viene, quindi, dapprima accreditata la tesi – sostenuta dalla prevalente dottrina – secondo cui la sussistenza di un danno derivante dalla perdita della qualità di socio potrà ravvisarsi solo qualora, all’esito del vaglio giudiziale, venga riscontrata l’incongruità del rapporto di cambio prescelto ovvero, più in generale, un abuso del potere deliberativo della maggioranza. In questo contesto, due sono i principali strumenti predisposti dal legislatore a difesa della posizione dei soci di minoranza; il primo, di stampo “precauzionale”, relativo all’esercizio consapevole del diritto di voto da parte della maggioranza del capitale, e correlato alla disciplina degli adempimenti pubblicitari fissati dagli artt. 2501-ter, comma 3, c.c. e 2502-septies, comma 1, c.c.; il secondo, invece, tipicamente societario, attinente all’impugnativa della delibera (consiliare ovvero assembleare) di approvazione del progetto ex artt. 2373 e 2391 c.c. e, dopo l’iscrizione camerale dell’atto, all’azione di risarcimento ex art. 2504-quater, comma 2, c.c. Movendo dalla constatazione che il ventaglio di rimedi previsto dal diritto societario può apparire soluzione poco attenta alla posizione dei soci di minoranza anche qualora l’operazione di fusione sia del tutto estranea agli scopi concordatari – dal che i tentativi dottrinali di consentire al socio di minoranza l’esercizio dell’azione di risarcimento in forma specifica e per equivalente, da ingiustificato arricchimento ovvero da responsabilità da voto – viene valutata la possibilità che, allorquando la fusione rappresenti lo strumento di attuazione di una soluzione concordata della crisi, la figura dei soci possa assumere tutt’altro rilievo, fino quasi ad assimilarsi a quella dei creditori; ciò, naturalmente, nei limiti in cui la posizione degli stessi venga coinvolta o addirittura “compromessa” dal processo concordatario, dal quale l’attuale disciplina concorsuale li esclude completamente. Sebbene tale “riqualificazione” sembri inattuabile in ambito nazionale, viene valutato (e criticato) un recente disegno di legge del Governo federale tedesco (Gesetzentwurf der Bundesregierung), che riserva la tutela della posizione dei soci ai soli rimedi concorsuali, disattivando – una volta ammessa la società al concordato – quelli previsti in via generale dalla disciplina societaria. Nella seconda sezione viene esaminata la modalità di tutela dei creditori che approvano il concordato e, successivamente, la protezione dei creditori contrari alla proposta. Quanto ai primi, più che ricorrere a ricostruzioni dottrinali (in particolare, tedesche) tese a ridurre il potere deliberativo dei soci, si affronta la possibilità di affidare la tutela delle aspettative dei creditori sociali al coordinamento del procedimento decisionale previsto in ambito societario con l’iter procedurale del concordato. Risulta infatti evidente che il pericolo che il diniego assembleare leda gli interessi del ceto creditorio si manifesta solo nel caso in cui l’adozione delle delibere societarie richieste per l’attuazione della fusione venga rinviata alla fase esecutiva del concordato, assegnando così all’offerta concordataria un valore meramente programmatico. E - si osserva - tali “inconvenienti” potrebbero essere evitati avviando il procedimento assembleare contestualmente ovvero nel corso della procedura concordataria, condizionandone peraltro l’esito finale al perfezionamento definitivo del concordato. Passando alla modalità di tutela dei creditori che non concorrono all’approvazione della proposta, viene prospettata la possibilità che la difficoltosa conciliazione delle regole che disciplinano l’approvazione a maggioranza del concordato (artt. 128, comma 1°, e 177, comma 1°, l. fall.) e la normativa societaria che, in tema di fusione, riconosce invece ai creditori il diritto individuale di opposizione (art. 2503 c.c.), venga risolta mediante il disconoscimento di tale diritto, affidando la tutela del ceto creditorio ai soli rimedi previsti in ambito concorsuale. Non diversamente degli obbligazionisti, i creditori concorsuali costituiscono infatti una sorta di “comunità accidentale”, dal momento che è loro vietato di agire individualmente nei confronti del patrimonio sociale ed è prevista un’organizzazione di gruppo (i.e. concorsuale) tesa a risolvere gli eventuali conflitti di interessi tra gli stessi creditori. Dal che l’applicazione a questi ultimi dello stesso regime (di esclusione dal diritto di opposizione) riservato espressamente agli obbligazionisti dall’art. 2503-bis c.c. Tale soluzione viene, infine, confortata da ulteriori considerazioni concernenti, da un lato, la modalità di espressione della volontà dei creditori concorsuali nelle forme della mera partecipazione alla volontà del gruppo e, dall’altro, il combinato disposto degli artt. 2503, comma 1, c.c., e 128, comma 1°, e 177, comma 1°, l. fall., ai sensi del quale il consenso dei creditori anteriori all’iscrizione camerale del progetto di fusione deve considerarsi prestato qualora l’offerta concordataria (implicante la fusione) risulti approvata dai creditori che rappresentano la maggioranza dei crediti. / The doctoral thesis, about “The protection of shareholders and creditors in the merger as a means of insolvency arrangement”, consists of three chapters. In the first one, the work moves from the observation of the low use of the transaction under investigation, to which the Italian scholars and case law have devoted little attention. The lack of coordination between the regulatory framework (and processes) company law and insolvency law is identified as the main reason of the limited practice of the institution and the consequent need for an interpretative work of reconstruction. The critical review of the institute moves by evaluating the eligibility of a merger as a means of an insolvency arrangement with both conservation and the claims settlement purposes; and this is realized through the possible application by analogy of article 2499 c.c., which in terms of transformation allows the transaction only to the extent compatible with the purposes and status of the procedure; or through the implementation of solutions made in the other (main) foreign experiences. This issue is resolved positively, on the one hand, by emphasizing the importance of systematic and innovative articles 124 and 160 l. fall., to the extent they deal with the wide range of solutions in which the proponent can choose; on the other hand, focusing on solutions, all basically positive, accepted by other jurisdictions in order to contemplate the possibility of a merger as a way of an executive plan of adjustment of the crisis or insolvency. The work goes on - in the second chapter - to identify the interests involved in the transaction distinguishing them, in this regard, in two different sets: the shareholders of the company in the procedure, and that of its creditors. As for the former, the prejudice to their position is due to the controversy over the dating of membership retention, in the light of the inevitable reduction in the value (at least) of the company's assets in the accounting procedure. It’s first evaluated the situation in which the value of the capital is zero, resulting in eligibility for the merger only if the real value of the assets is more than that amount; then, it evaluates the different circumstances in which - even though the entity's shareholders agreed to retain a positive value even accounting - some members are found to possess, after the merger and because of the determination of a particular exchange, a share less than the minimum convertible, thus in effect being “excluded” by the surviving or resulting company. In both events, it is then addressed (and answered in the affirmative) the eligibility of a majority decision of members, also called into question by some in favor of the unanimity, where it is breached the right of everyone to the conservation status of the members: and this, both because of the legislative provision limiting the cash compensation to ten percent of the shares allocated, thereby indirectly excluding the possibility of fully compensatory adjustments of the position of some members; whereas both the fairness of the exchange, in compliance with the rules laid down for the protection of rights (information) of the shareholders and, in any case, the presence of contexts in which the general remedies for corporate can be used. As for the risk faced by creditors, the analysis is conducted on two different “tracks”: the creditors that contribute to the approval of the plan are in fact exposed to the risk that the proposal they put (with the approval) satisfaction hopes suffer a setback, due to the failure to approve the merger by shareholders; and the creditors against the proposal agreed, which are instead exposed to the risk that the majority approval decisions of the proposal would (eventually) affect their interests. In the third chapter, divided into two sections, the remedies are identified to claim protection of their positions. In the first, we focus on whether the loss of membership can be somehow avoided or, under certain conditions, if such injury can find suitable refreshment: it’s endorsed the first argument - supported by the prevailing doctrine – in which the existence of an injury resulting from the loss of membership will be seen in it, only if - the outcome of judicial scrutiny found in the incongruity of the chosen exchange rate or, more generally, an abuse of the decision-making power of the majority. In this context, there are two main instruments prepared by the legislature to defend the position of minority shareholders: the first mold “precautionary” for the aware of the right to vote by the majority of the capital, and related to the discipline the advertising requirements set by the articles 2501-ter, paragraph 3, c.c. and 2502-septies, paragraph 1, c.c., and the second, however, typically corporate, relating to appeals of the resolution (i.e. council meeting) to approve the project under articles 2373 and 2391 c.c. and, after signing the Chamber of the act, action for damages pursuant to art. 2504-quater, paragraph 2, Civil Code. Moving from the observation that the range of remedies provided for company law solution may appear inattentive to the position of minority shareholders even if the merger is entirely foreign to the arrangement purposes - the doctrine is evaluated the possibility that when the merger represents the tool for implementing a mutually agreed solution of the crisis, the figure of the partners can be assimilated to that of creditors, and this, of course, to the extent in which they are involved with “compromised” by the insolvency process. Although this “retraining” seems impractical at the national level, it is evaluated (and criticized) a recent bill of the German Federal Government (Bundesregierung Gesetzentwurf), which reserves to protect the position of shareholders in insolvency remedies just by turning off - once admitted the company agreed to - those generally provided by corporate regulations. The second section examines the mode of protection of creditors who approved the agreement and, subsequently, the protection of creditors against the proposal. As for the former, rather than resorting to reconstructions of doctrine (especially the German one) aimed at reducing the decision-making power of shareholders, we face the possibility of entrusting the protection of creditors ' expectations for the coordination of the decision-making procedure provided for the company with the procedural course of the arrangement. It is clear that the danger of the creditors occurs only if the adoption of corporate resolutions required to implement the merger may be delayed until the execution phase of the agreement, thus giving to the arrangement a merely programmatic rule. And these “problems” could be avoided by starting the process at the same meeting or during the insolvency procedure, however, influencing the final outcome to the improvement of the final agreement. Turning to the ways of protecting creditors which do not contribute to the approval of the proposal, the difficult reconciliation of the rules governing the approval of a majority arrangement agreed (art. 128, paragraph 1, and 177, paragraph 1, l. fall.) and that, in terms of a merger, recognizes the individual right of creditors to oppose (art. 2503 cc), can be settled by their failure to recognize this right, entrusting the protection class of creditors only remedies provided for in the field of competition. Like bondholders, creditors bankruptcy constitute in fact a sort of “community accidental”, since they are forbidden to go it alone against the assets of an organization and is expected to group (i.e. competition) aims to resolve any conflicts of interests between the creditors themselves.

La tesi ha per oggetto lo studio del fenomeno dei patti parasociali occulti nell’ambito di s.p.a. aperte al mercato del capitale di rischio e quotate. La prima parte del lavoro si concentra sulle norme dell’ordinamento italiano che prevedono obblighi di trasparenza degli accordi tra azionisti, senza trascurare gli altri principali sistemi europei e quello statunitense. Il secondo capitolo sviluppa l’analisi dei diversi profili in relazione ai quali il fenomeno del patto parasociale occulto reagisce ed influisce sull’interpretazione e sull’applicazione della disciplina dell’opa obbligatoria da concerto. Inoltre, si fornisce un’illustrazione delle modalità attraverso le quali dovrebbe essere possibile pervenire alla prova dell’esistenza di siffatti accordi. Nell’ultimo capitolo si prende in esame la responsabilità degli azionisti per la violazione del dovere di disclosure e, soprattutto, per la mancata promozione dell’opa obbligatoria da patto occulto. Si argomenta nel senso che tale condotta possa integrare altresì un’ipotesi di insider trading (o, eventualmente, di manipolazione del mercato) e si procede ad una ricostruzione del danno risarcibile e del relativo nesso causale, traendo spunto, in particolare, dai risultati emersi nell’esperienza statunitense. / The thesis concerns the shareholders’ agreements - within a corporation - that are kept secret, breaching a legally imposed duty of disclosure. The first part of the analysis focuses on the rules that contain such a duty of disclosure, mainly as regards the Italian regulation but also through a consideration of other legal systems. The second chapter develops the study by showing how the not-disclosed shareholders’ agreements could vary the way in which the regulation of the mandatory bid should be interpreted and applied. Moreover, an illustration about the possible ways to get the evidence of the existence of these agreements is provided. In the final chapter, the liability of the shareholders - mainly based on the breach of the duty to promote a mandatory bid - is taken into consideration, especially through a comparison with the American legal system as for the damages caused by an insider trading conduct and the causal connection: it is argued, in fact, that the violation of the rules regarding both the disclosure of the agreements and the mandatory bid should be also identified as a case of insider trading (or market manipulation).

Le présent mémoire analyse l'impact du contexte d'insolvabilité sur le devoir fiduciaire d'agir dans le meilleur intérêt de la compagnie, devoir imposer aux administrateurs de compagnies par la législation corporative canadienne. L'objectif du mémoire est de déterminer un standard de conduite à être adopté par l'administrateur d'une compagnie insolvable en vue de répondre à ce devoir fiduciaire. Dans un premier temps, comment peut-on définir ce que constitue le « meilleur intérêt de la compagnie» ? L'auteur en vient à la conclusion que l'intérêt de la compagnie est au carrefour d'une communauté d'intérêts lui étant sous-jacents. L'intérêt de la compagnie, bien qu'indépendant de ces intérêts sous-jacents, ne peut s'analyser en faisant abstraction de ces derniers. La jurisprudence et la doctrine récentes laissent entrevoir que l'impact du contexte d'insolvabilité se fait sentir sur la détermination de ces intérêts sous-jacents à celui de la compagnie susceptibles d'être affectés par la finalité poursuivie par la compagnie, finalité axée sur la maximisation des profits à partir des opérations de l'entreprise exploitée par la compagnie. Dans un contexte d'insolvabilité, le créancier, à l'instar de l'actionnaire dans un contexte de solvabilité, supporte le risque commercial résiduel et doit recevoir une attention appropriée par les administrateurs. Par conséquent, dans la détermination de ce que constitue le meilleur intérêt de la compagnie, l'administrateur ne peut, lorsque la compagnie est insolvable, faire abstraction de l'intérêt des créanciers. Ainsi, dans un deuxième temps, qui sont les véritables bénéficiaires du devoir fiduciaire d'agir dans le meilleur intérêt de la compagnie dans un contexte d'insolvabilité? L'auteur en vient à la conclusion que le créancier est un bénéficiaire indirect de ce devoir fiduciaire lorsque la compagnie est insolvable. Tout comme l'actionnaire dans un contexte de solvabilité, le créancier doit être en mesure d'intenter un recours de nature dérivée en vue d'obtenir réparation, pour et au nom de la compagnie. Le contexte d'insolvabilité fait naître, à l'endroit des administrateurs, une obligation de nature fiduciaire de prendre en considération l'intérêt des créanciers tout en permettant à ces derniers d'intenter un tel recours dérivé en vue d'obtenir réparation à la suite d'une violation du devoir fiduciaire d'agir dans le meilleur intérêt de la compagnie. En plus d'être soutenue par une revue de la législation, de la jurisprudence et de la doctrine canadiennes, cette conclusion s'appuie sur une revue de la législation, de la jurisprudence et de la doctrine de certains pays du Commonwealth (Angleterre, Australie et Nouvelle-Zélande) et des États-Unis, juridictions avec lesquelles le Canada entretient des relations privilégiés, historiquement ou économiquement. Finalement, que doit faire l'administrateur d'une compagnie insolvable en vue de répondre à ce devoir fiduciaire d'agir dans le meilleur intérêt de la compagnie? L'auteur arrive à la conclusion que cette obligation de prendre en considération l'intérêt du créancier dans un contexte d'insolvabilité se traduit par un exercice de conciliation entre les intérêts du créancier et ceux des actionnaires. Les paramètres de cet exercice de conciliation sont déterminés en fonction du scénario envisagé par les administrateurs face à la situation d'insolvabilité. Plus le scénario se rapproche d'une liquidation plus ou moins formelle des actifs tangibles et facilement dissociables de la compagnie, moins cet exercice en sera un de conciliation et plus l'intérêt du créancier devra recevoir une attention prépondérante. À l'opposé, plus le scénario en est un de restructuration fondée sur une relance de l'entreprise exploitée par la compagnie insolvable, plus l'intérêt de l'actionnaire devra recevoir une attention particulière. / The following thesis analyses the impact of a company's insolvency on the fiduciary duties of its directors and officers, as imposed by Canadian corporate law. More specifically it shall examine the repercussions of an insolvency on management's fiduciary duty to act in accordance with the company's best interests. The objective shall therefore be to assess the extent of such fiduciary duty in the context of an insolvency and to establish a guideline to be followed by directors and officers in view of complying with said duty. Firstly, what constitutes the "best interests of the company"? The author concludes that a company's interests are comprised of a community of underlying interests. Although the interests of the company remain independent, it cannot be determined without taking into account said underlying interests. Amongst this community of underlying interests, shareholders and creditors, members of such community that supports the financing of the company's operations, occupy a predominant place. Recent case law and doctrinal authorities have concluded that the impact of a company's insolvency does not affect the ultimate objective pursued by the company, i.e. the maximisation of profit, but rather affects the determination of the members of the community of underlying interests that shall be affected by the pursuit of such finality. As such, in a context of insolvency, creditors, similar to shareholders in a context of solvency, are the residual risk-bearers of the company's commercial expenditure. Consequently, in view of determining what constitutes the best interests of the company, when it is insolvent, directors and officers may not ignore the creditors' interests. Secondly, who are the real beneficiaries of the fiduciary duty to act in a company's best interests when it becomes insolvent? The author concludes that creditors are indirect beneficiaries of such fiduciary duty in a context of insolvency. Similarly to shareholders in a context of solvency, creditors must be entitled to institute a derivative claim against directors and officers in order to obtain, in the name and for the company, compensation for the violation of said fiduciary duty. Insolvency triggers the existence of an obligation, fiduciary in nature, to take into account the creditors' interests. As such, directors and officers are to consider the creditors' interests in exercising their fiduciary duty to act in strict compliance with the best interests of the company. This conclusion is based on a review of the Canadian statutory law, jurisprudence and doctrinal authorities. Furthermore, this conclusion is supported by a review of same from certain Commonwealth jurisdictions (England, Australia and New-Zealand) and from the United States of America, jurisdictions with whom Canada has a privileged relationship, historically and/or economically. Finally, how does the obligation to take into account the creditors' interests translate in practice for directors and officers of an insolvent company? The author concludes that the obligation to take into account the creditors' interests is, in reality, an obligation to reconcile the shareholders' and creditors' interests with that of the company's best interests. The parameters of such obligation shall be determined with respect to the scenario conceived by directors and officers in order to effectively manage a situation of insolvency. Should such scenario focus on the liquidation of the core assets of the company, then the interests of the shareholders shall be subjugated to that of the creditors'. Conversely, should such scenario focus on the reorganisation of the company's commercial expenditures, based on the company's existing structures, then the shareholder's interest shall receive a more extensive attention by directors and officers.