During the last ten years the European union has faced several new challenges, especially with regards to the democratic backsliding that has been happening in its member states. Poland, which has had a positive democratic development and has been seen as being in the forefront of positive democratic consolidation, has since 2015 changed course towards becoming authoritarian regimes. EU has acted against this development, but this hasn’t stopped Poland in growing even more in an authoritarian direction.The aim of this paper is to examine what actions the European union has taken to stop the democratic backsliding in Poland through normative power, and what are the reasons for the failure of EU’s earlier sanctions against Poland. The conclusion of this thesis is that EU has used all the tools at its disposal to deal with Poland, without much success. What can be seen is that the member states in the union don’t always agree on defending the same values. But also, that the legal procedure to pursue a member which has gone against the core values of the union, are far too complicated. But it is not only dark, but as brighter future might also be ahead of EU, as its latest actions against Poland might be having an effect.

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The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine how the Convention on the Rights of the Child [CRC] as a new law is perceived in financial aid. Furthermore, the study aimed to examine how the employees in financial aid perceive their work with the participation of children since the CRC became law. The study has all throughout been analysed with the perspective of social constructivism.   Six social workers with different roles in financial aid were interviewed. The gathered material was then analysed with content analysis. Through the content analysis, three categories developed: how “participation” is constructed; the construction of the perspective of the child and “the best interest of the child”; perception of the implementation process of article 12. The material was then analysed with the perspective of social constructivism and with the Lundy model. The results indicate that the social workers find it hard to implement article 12 in financial aid. The social workers also seem to have different constructions for the word “participation”.

Denna uppsats syftar till att analysera det tänkta klimatsamarbetet mellan Sverige och Ghana som möjliggörs av Parisavtalets artikel 6. Sverige har en uttalad politisk ambition om att nå sina nationella klimatmål med hjälp av utsläppsminskningar i andra länder. Sverige och Ghana skrev under ett samförståndsavtal på COP26 i Glasgow där de deklarerar sitt intresse för samarbete i genomförandet av Parisavtalets artikel 6. Därtill har en fiktiv pilotstudie utformats för att ge exempel på vilken typ av aktivitet detta samarbete skulle kunna leda till. Genom en kvalitativ innehållsanalys visar denna uppsats att samarbetet har två syften: dels att leda till reella utsläppsminskningar, dels att ta en ledande roll i hur samarbeten under artikel 6 kan utformas. Utifrån Franz Scharpfs (1999) definition av input- och outputlegitimitet, visar uppsatsen att samarbetet rymmer flera viktiga legitimitetsdimensioner som att involvera privata och statliga aktörer för att säkerställa ett transparent och rättvist samarbete som leder till reella utsläppsminskningar. Det är dock oklart hur ansvar från de olika aktörerna ska kunna utkrävas och hur Sverige kommer använda sig av utsläppsreduktionerna för att nå sitt 2045-mål om nettonollutsläp / This thesis aims to examine the proposed climate cooperation between Sweden and Ghana under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. Sweden has expressed a political ambition to achieve its climate goals through emission reductions beyond its borders. Sweden and Ghana signed a Memorandum of Understanding in November 2021 during COP26 in Glasgow, in which they express an interest in cooperating for the implementation of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. In addition, a virtual pilot study has been developed proposing the type of activity this cooperation could generate. Through a qualitative content analysis, the thesis shows that the cooperation has two objectives: firstly, to lead to real emission reductions and secondly, to set an example for how cooperation under Article 6 can be carried out. Based on Franz Scharpf’s (1999) conception of input and output legitimacy, the thesis also demonstrates that the cooperation contains several important legitimacy dimensions such as involving private and public actors to ensure a transparent and just process with real mitigation outcomes. However, it remains unclear how this will ensure the accountability of all actors and how Sweden will use the project to achieve its 2045 net-zero emissions goal.

The purpose of this study is to investigate how children who have been exposed to violence between their parents are involved in the social workers investigation process. For this study the empirical material has been collected through six qualitative and semi-structured interviews with social workers who are working with child protection cases. Through the study we explore social workers' descriptions of the children's involvement, and what factors they emphasize as limiting and enabling for the children's participation in the investigation process. By an analysis with the help of The Lundy model and Shier’s model of participation, we found out that children's age and maturity are a recurring pattern in terms of the extent to which children become involved and how their opinions are taken into account in the investigation process. The interviewees emphasize that there are different ways to involve the children based on children's different conditions, for example through observations and conversation methods. There are no one-sided explanations of how children exposed to violence were involved in social workers' investigation processes, but participation was influenced by a number of factors. The factors that the interviewees describe as limiting and enabling are structures in the organization, laws and methods, and parents.

Swedish environmental law stipulates an extensive obligation to provide information to regulatory authorities. This obligation can also be combined with different penalties. This is concerning in cases where an individual has committed a crime. On one hand the refusal to provide information might result in penalties, on the other hand the individual risks self-incrimination. Thus, the obligation to provide information in Swedish environmental law raises a fundamental problem in procedural law, namely the contradiction between efficiency and procedural safeguards. A reasonable balance is required between the two interests. How this balance is to be made, however, is neither stated in law nor in the legal literature. The aim of this paper is therefore to analyse if the obligation to provide information in Swedish environmental law violates the right against self-incrimination. To achieve the purpose of the paper, the applicable law must initially be determined. The legal situation is described by mapping, systematizing, and interpreting relevant sources of law. These sources are mainly Swedish law, legislative history, case law and legal literature. The material is assigned a decreasing value in the order as just mentioned, where law is given the highest value. The analysis also includes some material that traditionally does not fall into any of the mentioned categories. This material is assigned a value after an assessment of its quality. Furthermore, the paper takes an internal comparative perspective since Swedish rules are compared with each other. The paper shows that the right against self-incrimination includes both a right to be silent and a right to be passive. Furthermore, the right only becomes relevant when someone is accused of a crime, as stated in article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. However, the paper reveals that it is possible for someone to be accused of a crime in Swedish environmental law, and thereby the right against self-incrimination is actualised. Moreover, it is concluded that the very existence of the environmental law's obligation to provide information does not conflict with the right against self-incrimination. However, there is a risk of violation in individual cases. At present, Swedish law does not allow authorities to combine an injunction with fines when it can be suspected that a crime has been committed. However, there is no legislation regarding the other penalties available to the authorities, even though these penalties can be equated with fines in many cases. In conclusion the paper indicates that the obligation to provide information in Swedish environmental law risks conflicting with the right against self-incrimination in individual cases. This is mainly the case when the obligation is combined with a penalty and there is a suspicion of crime.

Den digitala ekonomin har medfört tillämpningssvårigheter för flera delar av den europe- iska konkurrensrätten, vilket inte minst gäller definitionen av en relevant produktmarknad. Marknadsdefinitionen skapar en ram för den konkurrensrättsliga analysen genom att identifiera dominanta marknadsaktörer. Ett felaktigt eller missvisande resultat kan således medföra att även den efterföljande analysen blir felaktig. Marknadsdefinitionen spelar således en viktig roll i det konkurrensrättsliga regelverket. De metoder som används för detta ändamål har emellertid genom tillväxten av den digitala ekonomin och dess aktörer blivit utdaterad. Den digitala ekonomin kännetecknas av förekomsten av onlineplattformar. En onlineplattform är en flersidig marknad som tillhandahåller olika tjänster till olika grupper. Verksamhetsmodellen förknippas ofta med starka indirekta nätverkseffekter, stora byteskostnader, användningen av gratistjänster och extensiv datainsamling. Dessa särdrag försvårar definitionen av en relevant marknad eftersom flera av de ekonomiska koncept som styr marknadsdefinitionen inte är förenliga med denna typ av marknad. För det första råder oklarhet om flersidiga marknader ska behandlas som en gemensam marknad omfattande samtliga användarsidor, eller om de olika användarsidorna ska behandlas som separata marknader. För det andra försvåras marknadsdefinitionen av förekomsten av s.k. indirekta nätverkseffekter eftersom efterfrågan på en sida av marknaden ofta har en direkt påverkan på efterfrågan på den andra sidan av marknaden. För det tredje kan man inte utföra SSNIP-testet när tjänsterna som tillhandahålls av onlineplattformen är gratis. Framställningen har visat att litteraturen och praxis är oenig kring hur dessa frågor ska besvaras. Enligt litteraturen bör frågan angående om en eller flera marknader ska definieras besvaras baserat på om marknaden utgör en s.k. flersidig transaktionsmarknad eller en flersidig icke-transaktionsmarknad. I praxis har istället fokus lagts vid de konkurrensrättsliga begränsningarna som respektive sida utsätts för. Angående hur de indirekta nätverkseffekterna ska beaktas råder liknande oklarheter. I litteraturen har man försökt skapa kalkyler som kan beräkna lönsamheten som respektive sida spelar för den andra. I praxis är det svårt att urskilja några särskilda mönster men i ett fall har kommissionen till stor del baserat en plattforms utbytbarhet på den nyttan marknadens andra sida skapar för den granskade sidan. Angående hur utbytbarhet ska mätas i frånvaro av pris finns flera alternativ. I praxis har ett vanligt tillvägagångssätt varit att basera prövningen på tjänsternas funktioner. En annan lösning har varit att genomföra ett SSNIP-liknande test baserat på kvalitetsminskning. I litteraturen har även förslaget lyfts att se data som den kostnad som betalas av gratisanvändarna. Som framställningen illustrerar saknar ett sådant tillvägagångssätt emellertid helt rättsligt stöd och framstår som problematiskt av flera anledningar. Sammantaget visar framställningen att det, trots de olika lösningarna på problemen, finns stora behov av enhetliga klargöranden kring hur den digitala ekonomins särdrag ska beaktas i marknadsdefinitionen. Detta är särskilt viktigt eftersom förekomsten av denna typ av marknader sannolikt inte kommer avta.

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