Masonite Beams AB är ett företag som är väl etablerat i Sverige men har för avsikt att expandera till främst Norge, men även till de andra Nordiska länderna. Masonite Beams behöver därför skapa nya spännviddstabeller för sina I-balkar med hänsyn till de olika nationella bestämmelserna i respektive land. Detta examensarbete behandlar de olika nationella kraven för Sverige, Norge, Danmark och Finland för bostadsbjälklag. Arbetet omfattar en dimensionering i respektive land för ett HI300 bjälklag. Samtliga aktuella länder baserar sin dimensionering på Eurokod med nationella bilagor. De olika nationella valen till Eurokod resulterade i stora skillnader i den maximala spännvidden för ett HI300 bjälklag. Beräkningar gjordes med hänsyn till samverkan eller utan samverkan mellan balk och golvskiva. Det dimensionerande kriteriet varierade mellan länderna. Se Tabell 0.1 för maximal spännvidd för respektive land. Vidare beräkningar för de norska förhållandena behöver göras för att optimera spännviddstabeller med hänsyn till delvis samverkan mellan balk och golvskiva. / Masonite Beams AB is a company that is well established in Sweden but intends to expand mainly to Norway, but also to the other Nordic countries. Masonite Beams therefore need to create new span tables for their I-beams with respect to the various national regulations in each country. This thesis deals with the various national requirements for Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland for residential floors. The work includes a design in each country for a HI300 floor. All the relevant countries base their design on Eurocode with national annexes. The different national selection to Eurocode resulted in large differences in the maximum span for a HI300 floor. Calculations were made with regard to interaction and without interaction between the beam and the floor panel. The design criteria varied between countries. See Table 0.2 for maximum span length for each country. Further calculations for Norwegian conditions need to be done to optimize the span tables with respect to the partial interaction between the beam and the floor panel.

Den horisontella stabiliseringen av en byggnad har ofta stor betydelse vid dimensionering av den bärande stommen. Motverkas de horisontella lasterna inte tillräckligt kan problem uppstå när pelare och balkar får en utböjning som är större än vad marginalerna tillåter. En vanligt förekommande horisontell last uppkommer från vind som träffar en yttervägg. I detta arbete beräknades och jämfördes utböjningen orsakad av vindlast för fem olika stabiliseringsmetoder. Dessa fem metoder bestod av fast inspända pelare, ledade- och inspända ramar, dragstag samt drag-tryckstag. Paviljongen vid Backens prästgård konstruerades med drag-tryckstag som stabiliserande metod då det var den styvaste i fallet. Konstruktionsavdelningen på konsultbolaget Tyréns ville för framtida projekt veta hur stor skillnaderna i utböjning blev jämfört med ovan nämna metoder. Mått, vinklar och tvärsnitt modifierades från referensbyggnaden för att passa projektets syfte bättre. Beräkningar gjordes för hand och med beräkningsprogrammet Ramanalys, där även skillnader i resultaten mellan beräkningsmetoderna skulle härledas. Projektets första mål var att redogöra för skillnaderna i utböjning mellan stabiliseringsmetoderna. Resultatet visade att ledad ram orsakade den största utböjningen. Vidare uppkom den största utböjningen i fallande ordning enligt fast inspänd pelare, inspänd ram, dragstag och slutligen drag-tryckstag. Det andra målet innebar att härleda de skillnader i resultat som handberäkningar och Ramanalys uppvisade som värdera omfattningen på dessa. Grafiska figurer visade att sammantryckningen i staget till en början blev densamma för båda beräkningsmetoderna men att den horisontella utböjningen blev större i Ramanalys. Med ökande last skilde sig även sammantryckningen åt. Skillnaden berodde på att Ramanalys tog hänsyn till krökning i staget. Utöver detta påvisades att Ramanalys beaktade den krökning samt förlängning som skedde i intilliggande balk respektive pelare. Slutsatsen blev att drag-tryckstag var den styvaste metoden och att horisontell utböjning skiljde sig mycket åt beroende på stabiliseringsmetod. Det visades även att handberäkningarna gav missvisande resultat av betydande storlek. Handberäkningar kunde således inte anses vara ett lämpligt tillvägagångssätt vid beräkning av utböjningar för samtliga stabiliserande metoder förutom fast inspända pelare. / The horizontal stabilization often has a big impact regarding the dimension of the supporting framework. If the horizontal forces are not sufficiently counteracted problems can occur when columns and beams get a deflection which is bigger than the margins allow. A common horizontal action occurs when wind hits an outer wall. In this thesis the horizontal deflection caused by a force of wind was calculated and compared for five different stabilization methods. These five methods consisted of rigid restrained columns, hinged- and rigid restrained frames, tensile rods as well as tensile-compression braces. The music pavilion at Backens rectory was constructed with tensile-compression braces because it was the stiffest stabilization method in that case. The construction department at Tyréns consultancy wanted to know how big the differences in deflection was compared to the methods mentioned above. Measurements, angels and cross sections was modified from the reference building to better fit the purpose of this project. The calculations were made by hand and with the calculation program Frame Analysis, where also differences in the results between the two calculation methods would be derived. The projects main aim was to describe the differences in deflection between the stabilization methods. The result showed that the hinged frame caused the biggest horizontal deflection. Further the biggest deflection that emerged in descending order accordingly; rigid restrained columns, rigid restrained frames, tensile rods and finally tensile-compression braces. The second aim was to derive the differences shown in the results when calculations was carried out by hand and with Frame Analysis as well as evaluate the extent of the differences. The graphic figures made showed that the compressive strain on the brace was the same with both methods to begin with, but the horizontal deflection was bigger in Frame Analysis. With increasing load, the compressive strain also differed. The difference is due to Frame Analysis regard of the curvature that appears in the brace. In addition, Frame Analysis also took in account the curvature that occurred in the beam in which the load was assumed led through. Besides this it was shown that Frame Analysis payed attention to that the column to which the brace was connected got a vertical extension that affected the deflection. The conclusion was that tensile-compression braces was the stiffest method and that horizontal deflection differed a lot depending on stabilization method. It was also shown that calculations made by hand gave misleading results of significant size and could not be considered a suitable approach when calculating deflections on any stabilization methods besides rigid restrained columns.

Vibration serviceability in the design of footbridges is gathering enormous prominence as comfort restrictions get enhanced. Comfort verifications are often becoming critical when considering human induced dynamic loading on lightweight structures, which are increasing in slenderness and flexibility. The aim of this work was to build up understanding about the running load effects on the response of footbridges and proving that it could imply a critical load case that would require verification. Additionally, the accuracy of potential models to estimate the structural response was evaluated. Finally, aiming for a practical application, this work provides a step forward towards the possibility of adopting a simplified design methodology to be included in the future guidelines and an insight into the potential effects of a marathon event. While the walking load case is a well-studied phenomenon, not much attention has been paid to the running induced excitation. Guidelines motivate that there is no need for verification and exceptionally, some get to suggest a time domain load model definition. The interaction phenomena as well as the effects of groups of runners in the dynamic response of the structure remain still unknown. Limiting the work to the vertical component of the response and force and based on a large set of additional assumptions, experimental and numerical analyses were performed. Three footbridges were tested and subjected to tests involving different motion forms; jumping, walking and running. On the other hand, the time domain load models available in the literature were applied accounting for the spatial displacement of each of the pedestrians along the footbridge. In the most advanced of the models, aiming to account for interaction effects, the subjects were modelled as independent mechanical systems. The results derived from the experimental study helped characterizing the running load effect on the footbridge's response and proved that there may be structures in which running could comprise a critical load case. Furthermore, the numerical analyses allowed to verify the accuracy of the suggested models and the improvement that the human structure interaction effects involve. The analyses resulted in complementary sets of conclusions that built up understanding about the running load effects on footbridges; such as the sensitivity of the estimated response to the structure's modal properties and the influence of the parameters that characterize the running motion. Finally, the suggested simplified design methodology was able to estimate, with a very reasonable error for the current case study, the calculated response by the most accurate of the models. To sum up, this work serves as a motivation to include the running load case in the guidelines and establishes a starting point for further research and simplified design methodologies based on the strategy and models suggested in this work.

Shear cracks are formed when high oblique tensile stresses, e.g. in thin webs, exceed the tensile strength. A known example of this phenomenon is the extensive shear cracks that were found on the box-girder bridges Gröndal and Alvik, which were mainly caused by insufficient amount of shear reinforcement. In order to avoid this incident (inadequate amount of shear reinforcement), the reinforcement stress is often being assumed as a ultimate limit load in order to fulfill requirements regarding crack control in the service-ability limit state (SLS). This method has led to a overestimation of the reinforcement amount in bridge-design. The aim of this master thesis is therefor to study the shear crack phenomenon and investigate if the amount of shear reinforcement in bridges can be reduced. The first part of this thesis studies the shear cracking behavior in concrete in a plane stress state, while the second part focus how design standards as well as manuals treats shear cracks. Shear cracking in the reinforced concrete panels has been studied with non-linear finite element analysis and compared to experimental testings performed by the University of Toronto. Three different loading conditions for the panels has been analyzed: pureshear, compression or tension combined with shear. The panels are to represent parts of a web in a box-girder bridge that are subjected to in-plane stresses. The non-linear finite element analysis was performed in the FE-program Atena where mainly the crack propagation and crack pattern were studied. The material model in Atena is a smeared crack model with either fixed or rotated crack direction. The panel analysis, in SLS, gave various results. For loading conditions pure shear and tension/shear, the response of the FE-analysis gave a similar result regarding crack pattern but differed in size of crack width. For compression/shear, only micro-cracks developed and did not reflect the result from the real panel tests. This may be the consequence of a too stiff FE-model and the fact that, in the real tests, some cracks occurred due to out-of-plane bending. With methods described in Eurocode 2 and the Swedish handbook for EC2, a shear crack calculation model was created in order to determine the reinforcement stress and crack width. As a reference for the shear crack calculations, a wing structure (1 m strip) has been used which is part of a railway bridge located in Abisko. These calculations were done in order to investigate if the amount of shear reinforcement could be reduced and at the same time fulfill crack control demands in SLS. The bridge department at Tyréns AB concluded, according to a truss model, that the wing section should be reinforced with a amount of 14.1 cm2/m2 while our model showed that the crack width demand could be fulfilled with a equivalent amount of 9.82 cm2/m2, i.e. a reduction around 30%.

The experimental studies performed on the behaviour of very thick concrete beams subjected to static loads have revealed that the shear mechanisms play an important role in the overall response and failure behaviour. The aim of this thesis is to recommend suitable design methods for thick concrete beams subjected to off-centre static concentrated load according Eurocode 2 by using non-linear finite element analysis (NLFEA). To achieve this task, Abaqus/Explicit has been used by employing constitutive material models to capture the material non-linearity and stiffness degradation of concrete. Concrete damaged plasticity model and perfect plasticity model has been used for concrete and steel respectively. Three dilation angles (30º, 38º and 45º) and fracture energy from FIB 1990 (76 N/m) and FIB 2010 (142 N/m) has been used to investigate their influence on the finite element model. The dilation angle of 38º and FIB 2010 fracture energy was adopted as the suitable choice that reasonably matched with the experimental results. In verifying and calibrating the finite element model, the experimental results of the thick reinforced concrete beam conducted by the American Concrete Institute have been used. Three design approaches in the ultimate and serviceability limit state according to Eurocode 2 recommendations have been used namely; the beam method, strut and tie method and shell element method. Using the reinforcement detailing of the hand calculations of beam method and strut and tie method and linear finite element analysis of shell element method, non-linear finite element models have been pre-processed and analysed in Abaqus/Explicit. During the post-processing, the results have been interpreted and compared between the three design methods. The results under consideration are hand-calculated load at 0.3 mm crack width, FE-load at 0.3 mm crack width, amount of reinforcement and FE-failure load. The comparison of the results between the three design approaches (beam method, strut and tie method and shell element method) indicates that strut and tie method is better design approach, because it is relatively economic with regards to the quantity of reinforcement bars, has the higher load capacity and has a higher load at crack width of 0.3 mm crack width. / De experimentella studier som utförts på tjocka betongbalkar som utsätts för statisk last har visat att skjuvning spelar en viktig roll i brottmekanismen. Syftet med detta examensarbete är att rekommendera lämpliga dimensioneringsmetoder för tjock betongbalkar utsatt for statisk koncentrerad last enligt Eurokod 2 med hjälp av ickelinjära finita element metod. Abaqus/Explicit användes genom att utnyttja konstitutiva materialmodeller för att fånga materialens icke-linjäritet och minskad styvhet. Tre dilatationsvinklar (30°, 38° och 45°) och två brottenergi från FIB 1990 (76 N/m) och FIB 2010 (142 N/m) tillämpas för att kontrollera deras inverkan på FE-modellerna. Dilatationsvinkel med 38° och FIB 2010 med högre brottenergi valdes i de icke-linjära finita elementanalyserna. Kontroll av FE-modellerna är baserad på ”American Concret Institutes” experimentella resultat på de tjocka betongbalkarna. Handberäkningar av tjocka betongbalkar har utförts i brott- och bruksgränstillstånd med tre dimensioneringsmetoder i Eurokod 2 nämligen balk metoden, fackverksmetoden och linjära-FE skalelementmetoden. Jämförelse har gjorts för de olika dimensioneringsmetoderna, genom att använda de armeringsdetaljer av handberäkningar i de verifierade och kalibrerade icke linjära FE-modellerna i Abaqus/Explicit. Resultaten i fråga är last för 0.3 mm handberäknad sprikvidd, FE-last för 0.3 mm sprikvidd, armeringsmängd och FE-brottlast. Jämförelse av resultaten mellan de tre dimensioneringsmetoder (balkmetod, fackverksmetod och skalelementmetod) visar att fackverksmetod är bättre design metod, eftersom det är relativt ekonomiskt med avseende på armeringsmängd, har högre lastkapacitet och last på 0.3 mm sprickvidd.

Dagens samhälle har fått en explosiv utveckling som förverkligar mycket som för bara några år sedan var inte mer än fantasier.  Dagens utvecklingsförsprång ställer oss, byggnadskonstruktörer, inför rejäla utmaningar. Den globala folktillväxten ökar väsentligt vilket leder till tätbefolkade städer. Detta utvecklar ett stort utrymmesbehov hos många av oss. Allt detta resulterar i att efterfrågan på stora och öppna planlösningar ökar markant. En av dagens tendenser är att beställare och arkitekter har en benägenhet att tänja på gränserna på maximala spännvidder mellan bärande betongväggar, för bjälklagstjockleken 250 mm. Detta är ett tillfredsställande mått för att klara ljudklass B. Dessutom är det opraktiskt att variera bjälklagstjocklekar inom ett projekt, därför vill man ha uniformitet med samma tjocklek över projektet. För att vi ska kunna förverkliga vårt uppdrag har vi varit tvungna att genomgå en lång beräknings- och undersökningsprocess. I våra beräkningar har vi lagt fokus på två upplagsfall. Det första upplagsfallet ”fri-inspänd” och det andra fallet ”inspänd-yttre gavelvägg”. Första fallet har varit det värsta fallet i och med att vi bara har ett stöd som måste bära hela betongbjälklaget, vilket har varit en stor utmaning. Andra fallet var dock betydligt enklare på grund av de två stöden som utgjorde en stor del av ”arbetet” och lyfter upp bjälklaget, hela tyngden vilade inte på armeringen som i föregående fall. Inte bara spännvidden skall klaras utan även angiven sprickvidd på 0,3 mm. Examensarbetet består av förklarande fakta som är strikt relaterad till efterföljande beräkningar. Alla beräkningar har utförts för hand, utan programstöd. / Today's society has received a degenerate development embodying much that just a few years ago was no more than fantasies. This development sets us, structural engineers, facing real challenges. The global population growth increases significantly leading to densely populated cities. This develops a large space need for many of us. All this results in the increasing demand for large and open floor plans significantly. One of the current trends is that the clients and architects have a tendency to push the limits on maximum spans between bearing concrete walls, slabs for thickness 250 mm. This is a satisfactory measure of the concrete content to manage audio class B. Moreover, it is impractical to vary the slab thickness within a project, so he wants to have uniformity with the same thickness over the project. For us to be able to realize these long spans between bearing walls, we have been forced to undergo a long calculation and examination process. To begin with, we have studied the company's requirements and preferences, based on that, we started joists analysis. In our calculations, we have laid emphasis on two cases. The first circulation fall "free - clamped" and the second, "clamped- outer end wall." The first case has been the worst case, in that we only have one support that must bear the entire concrete slab, which has been a major challenge. Second case was considerably easier due to the two supports which made a large part of "work" and lifts the slab, the full weight rested not on the reinforcement as in the previous case. Not just the span must be met, but also given crack width of 0.3 mm. The thesis consists of explanatory facts that are strictly related to the subsequent calculations. All calculations have been performed by hand, without program support.

Byggbranschen bidrar till stora utsläpp av växthusgaser, och det är därför viktigt att utforska hållbara material för att minska påverkan. Studien fokuserar på grundfundament för mindre trähus i Sverige, där betong i platta på mark ersätts med korslimmat trä (KLT) för att reducera klimatpåverkan. Eftersom betong har hög tryckhållfasthet gjordes analys av kantbalkens kapacitet. Fyra alternativ på kantbalkar undersöks: KLT/EPS400, KLT/Foamglas, KLT/EPS s100 och EPS400. Studien bedömer även den nuvarande dimensioneringen i hållfasthetsberäkningarna. Testdata för tryckhållfasthet används för att jämföra med förväntade resultat och avgöra om beräkningsmodellen ”2:1 metoden” är tillräcklig.Syftet är att bedöma möjligheterna för användning i två hustyper hos en ledande hustillverkare i Sverige. Miljöpåverkan av alternativen beräknas med IVL Svenska Miljöinstitutets verktyg, BM, där även en betonggrund jämförs. Det utförs även en enklare insikt i skillnader av produktion mellan en klassisk betonggrund och Klaragrunden. Studien visade att 1-plansvillan Lycke kan utföras med KLT och EPS s100, och att 1,5-plansvillan Tyresund kan se möjligheter med KLT och FoamglasT4+. Studien visade också att den bästa genomsnittliga grunden är KLT och EPS s400. Genom att byta ut betongen i en platta på mark med KLT, gör det möjligt att sänka grundens CO2 utsläpp med 65-68%. / The construction industry contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, making it crucial to explore sustainable materials to reduce its impact. This study focuses on foundation systems for small wooden houses in Sweden, where concrete slabs are replaced with cross-laminated timber (CLT) to decrease climate impact. Due to concrete's high compressive strength, an analysis of the edge beam's capacity was done. Four edge beam alternatives are examined: CLT/EPS400, CLT/Foamglas, CLT/EPS s100, and EPS400. The study also evaluates the current dimensioning in strength calculations. Compression strength test data is used to compare with expected results and determine if the calculation model "2:1 method" is sufficient. The aim is to assess the possibilities for use in two house types from a leading house manufacturer in Sweden. The environmental impact of the alternatives is calculated using IVL Swedish Environmental Institute's tool, BM, where a concrete foundation is also compared. There is also a brief insight into the differences in production between a traditional concrete foundation and Klaragrunden. The findings indicated that the single-story villa Lycke can be constructed using CLT and EPS s100, while the 1.5-story villa Tyresund can explore possibilities with CLT and Foamglas T4+. Moreover, the study revealed that the CLT and EPS s400 combination yielded the best average foundation. By replacing the concrete in a ground slab with CLT, it is possible to reduce the CO2 emissions from the foundation by 65-68%.