This thesis explores how cognitive artefacts contribute to the process of reaching common ground within collaborative groups through a study of both Clark's theory of Common Ground and of how artefacts are understood to be used, both by individuals and as seen in distributed cognition. This was accompanied by an ethno-methodologically inspired study in the natural setting of a kitchen to observe how artefacts are used when negotiationg common ground. After the study's completion, participants were interviewed in order to establish whether common ground was successfully established ant to look for consistency between obeservations from the study and how the participants motivate their actions. The study was analysed in order to find patterns, of which four distinct kinds were indentified; these categories were then related to facts established in the study of Common Ground and artefacts.

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Cette thèse est consacrée à l’étude de trois faits de langue du créole martiniquais (CM) et aborde ainsi certains aspects de l’interface syntaxe-sémantique/pragmatique. Le premier fait de langue concerne la périphérie gauche nominale du CM pour laquelle nous proposons de scinder la projection fonctionnelle DP en deux projections, Def(initeness)P et Specif(icity)P. La première de ces couches encode la définitude, tandis que la seconde marque la spécificité. Cette analyse permet de rendre compte de deux des propriétés des propositions relatives restrictives du CM. Il s’agit en l’espèce du fait qu’elles comportent deux occurrences du déterminant défini et que la présence ou absence de sa seconde occurrence résulte en une lecture spécifique ou non spécifique. Bien qu’ils ne puissent comporter qu’une seule occurrence du déterminant défini (motivée par une haplologie), les DP simples sont soumis à la même analyse. On peut ainsi rendre compte de leurs différentes interprétations. Le second fait de langue concerne les interrogatives partielles définies (IPD). Ces constructions se distinguent des interrogatives canoniques par les conditions de leur légitimation. Elles nécessitent l’inclusion dans le common ground d’une proposition existentielle qui partage avec l’IPD sa restriction et sa portée nucléaire. De ce fait, on ne peut ni commencer une conversation par une IPD ni y apporter une réponse du type rien. Les IPD se caractérisent donc par une présupposition forte que nous attribuons à la présence en position finale d’un déterminant clausal. Ce dernier est engendré dans la périphérie gauche de la phrase et prend pour restriction une proposition. En raison de son homophonie avec le déterminant défini nominal, nous suggérons qu’il est la réalisation d’un trait acatégoriel [+DEF]. Autrement dit, nous apportons ici de nouvelles preuves au point de vue selon lequel la définitude n’est pas une propriété exclusivement nominale. Le troisième fait de langue concerne l’interaction des verbes modaux du CM avec le temps. Qu’ils soient épistémiques ou radicaux, les modaux du CM sont des verbes à montée. Quelle que soit leur lecture, ils participent donc à des structures biclausales et sont sous la portée du temps. On observe cependant que l’interprétation temporelle des épistémiques est soumise à des contraintes qui ne s’appliquent pas aux radicaux. Ce contraste trouve son origine dans une différence d’orientation. Les radicaux sont orientés vers le sujet, alors que les épistémiques sont orientés vers le locuteur (ou le Siège de la Connaissance). Cela se traduit par une dépendance interprétative des épistémiques vis-à-vis de la couche fonctionnelle abstraite Sen(tience)P située dans la périphérie gauche de la phrase. Nous proposons un trait [sen] pour traduire cette dépendance. Les conséquences interlangagières de cette analyse sont évaluées. Les trois faits de langue à l’étude confirment l’importance capitale de la périphérie gauche nominale et phrastique dans l’interface syntaxe-sémantique/pragmatique. / This dissertation investigates three linguistic phenomena in Martinican Creole (MC) and addresses some aspects of the syntax-semantics/pragmatics interface. The first phenomenon concerns the nominal left periphery. I argue that the MC DP layer should be split into two distinct functional projections, Def(initeness)P and Specif(icity)P. The former projection encodes definiteness, while the latter marks specificity. This analysis accounts for two properties of MC restrictive relative clauses. First, they manifest determiner doubling. Second, the presence/absence of the second occurrence of the definite determiner is correlated with a specific/nonspecific reading. The proposed analysis can be applied to simplex DPs even though, owing to a haplology, they cannot feature more than one occurrence of the determiner. This allows for a straightforward account of their interpretational properties. The second phenomenon concerns definite wh-questions (DWQs). These non-canonical wh-questions are characterized by their peculiar licensing conditions. They can only be uttered if the common ground includes an existential proposition which shares its restriction and nuclear scope with the DWQ. As a result, they cannot be uttered out of the blue and do not tolerate nothing-type answers. In other words, DWQs are associated with a hard presupposition triggered by the clausal determiner which appears in the final position of DWQs. This determiner is base-generated in the left periphery of the clause and takes a proposition as its restriction. Because of its homophony with the nominal definite determiner, we suggest that it spells out an acategorial [+DEF] feature. This can be adduced as further evidence for the view that definiteness is not restricted to the nominal domain. The third phenomenon under study concerns the interaction of MC modal verbs with tense. Whether they receive a root or an epistemic reading, MC modals are raising predicates. Both epistemic and root modals are inserted in biclausal structures and are under the scope of tense. Nevertheless, the temporal interpretation of epistemic modals is subject to constraints which do not apply to their root counterparts. This contrast correlates with a difference in orientation. Root modals are subject-oriented, while epistemic modals are oriented toward the speaker (or the Seat of Knowledge). This results in their interpretational dependence on the abstract Sen(tience)P functional layer. To reflect this dependency, I argue for a [sen] feature. The cross-linguistic implications of this proposal are evaluated. The three phenomena under study confirm that the nominal and clausal left periphery plays a crucial role in the syntax-semantics/pragmatics interface.

L'approccio argomentativo alla definizione permette di aprire una nuova prospettiva su questo tema. La definizione può essere infatti analizzata dialetticamente come un endoxon, una conoscenza comunemente accettata che ha come oggetto la struttura semantico-ontologica condivisa. La definizione dialettica può costituire lo standpoint di un'argomentazione ed essere fondata su argomenti, oppure fungere da premessa in un sillogismo retorico ed essere quindi uno strumento argomentativo e persuasivo. Le caratteristiche della definizione dialettica possono essere delineate a partire dalle sue origini nella Topica di Aristotele. Da un'interpretazione in chiave predicativo-argomentale di quest'opera emerge come la definizione per genere e specie sia uno strumento di analisi semantica fondamentale per comprendere il nesso di ragionevolezza negli entimemi ed al tempo stesso origine di inferenze argomentative. La tradizione aristotelica è ripresa nella tradizione latina e medievale, in cui viene evidenziato il rapporto tra i differenti tipi di definizione e la loro funzione argomentativa e persuasiva. Nella riflessione moderna e contemporanea il concetto di definizione dialettica è alla base dell'analisi della definizione persuasiva, cioè una strategia argomentativa fondata sulla ridefinizione e sulle inferenze valoriali che derivano dal “significato emotivo” del definito. Le categorie di definizione dialettica e di definizione persuasiva permettono di analizzare le funzioni argomentative della definizione nel contesto comunicativo scientifico, giuridico e politico. / A new perspective on the problem of definition can be opened by an argumentative approach to this subject. Definition can be dialectically analyzed as an endoxon, namely as an aspect of common knowledge regarding the shared semantic-ontological structure. The dialectical definition can be the standpoint of an argumentation and be supported by arguments, or the premise of a rhetorical syllogism. In this case, the dialectical definition can be used argumentatively and persuasively. The characteristics of dialectical definition can be found inquiring into its origins, namely Aristotle's Topics. By interpreting this work in a predicate-argument perspective, it is possible to notice how genus-species definition is a instrument of semantic analysis, which is fundamental to understand the relation between logic and reasonableness in enthymemes and how definitions can be source of inferences. The Aristotelian tradition has been revived in the Latin and Medieval tradition by analyzing the relationship between different types of definition and their argumentative and persuasive function. In the framework of modern and contemporary argumentation theories, the dialectical definition can be considered the foundation for a new interpretation of a particular argumentative and persuasive strategy grounded on definition: the persuasive definition. Persuasive definition can be seen as a redefinition aimed at altering the inferences from values (or judgments of value) which can be drawn from the definiendum. The concepts of dialectical definition and persuasive definition allow one to examine the argumentative functions of definitions in the scientific, legal, and political communicative context.

I Sverige beräknas 130 000 människor leva med en medelsvår till svår demenssjukdom. Demens är en övergripande diagnos för en samling sjukdomar där kognitiva nedsättningar är utmärkande och kommunikativa förmågor påverkade. I tidigare studier har det undersökts hur personer med demens kommunicerar med en samtalspartner utan demens, men hur personer med demens kommunicerar med varandra är fortfarande relativt outforskat. Syftet med föreliggande studie var att undersöka och beskriva hur personer med en demensdiagnos samtalar med varandra och hur de hanterar samtalsämnen och ämnesbyten. Studien genomfördes på en daglig verksamhet för personer med demensdiagnos, där totalt tre samtal spelades in. Ett av samtalen, omfattande 40 minuter, valdes ut för transkription och analyserades enligt samtalsanalytiska principer (CA). I det utvalda samtalet valdes sekvenser ut. Sekvenserna exemplifierade olika typer av ämnesbyten. För en utökad bild av samtalets ämnesflöde gjordes även en topikal analys, där samtalet delades in i totalt 14 olika episoder. I samtalet deltog sex personer med demensdiagnos samt föreliggande studies två författare. Exempel på ämnesbyten som påträffades i det analyserade samtalet var koherenta ämnesbyten i form av preannonseringar, koherent återinförande av ämne och ämnesglidningar. Icke-koherenta ämnesbyten förekom i samtalet i form av icke-koherent återinförande av ett ämne. Samtalet innehöll också exempel på digressioner och inskott. För en utomstående betraktare föreföll det ibland som om deltagarna saknade gemensam grund för samtalet, vilket till synes inte uppmärksammades av samtalsdeltagarna. En slutsats som dras utifrån detta är att för deltagarna är samtalsaktiviteten viktigare än själva innehållet i samtalet. I det aktuella samtalet återkom ofta samma historia och samtalsämne flera gånger. De olika samtalsämnena som uppstod under samtalet hade oftast ett övergripande tema som handlade om hur det var förr i tiden, när deltagarna var unga eller barn. / In Sweden, approximately 130 000 persons suffer from moderate to severe dementia. Dementia is a collective diagnosis for a collection of diseases in which cognitive impairments are distinctive, and communicative abilities are affected. Earlier studies have investigated how people with dementia communicate with an interlocutor without dementia. How people suffering from dementia communicate with each other is still relatively unexplored. The purpose of the present study is to investigate and describe how people suffering from dementia interact with each other, and how they handle topics and topic shifts. The present study was conducted on a day center for people with dementia diagnoses, where a total of three conversations were recorded. One of the conversations, comprising 40 minutes, was transcribed according to conversation analytic principles. From the selected conversation, sequences showing different types of topic changes were selected and exemplified. For an expanded view of the conversation’s topical flow, a topical analysis was made, where the conversation was divided into a total of 14 different episodes. The conversation involved six people with dementia and the two authors of the present study. Examples of topic shifts found in the analyzed conversation were coherent topic shifts in the form of pre-acts, coherent renewal of topic and topic shading. Non-coherent topic shifts occurred in the conversation in the form of non-coherent renewal of a topic. The conversation also contained examples of digressions and inserts. To the outside observer, it seemed at times as if the participants had no common ground for the conversation, which was not noticed by the participants of the conversation. One conclusion drawn from this is that for the participants, the activity is more important than the actual content of the conversation. In the current conversation, the participants returned to the same story and the same topic several times. The different topics occurring during the conversation usually had an overall theme which was what it was like in the old days, when the participants were young or children.

En dialogue humain-humain et humain-système, le terrain commun (constitué des informations que les locuteurs ont conscience de partager ; Clark & Marshall, 1981) sert de base à la production de références adaptées au partenaire (Isaacs & Clark, 1987 ; Powers et al., 2005). La production des références appartenant au terrain commun dépend de leur accessibilité en mémoire pour chaque partenaire : plus une référence est accessible, plus elle est susceptible d'être produite (Horton & Gerrig, 2005a, 2005b). En ce sens, la production de références appartenant au terrain commun fait l'objet d'un biais égocentrique, étant donné qu'elle reflète principalement l'état mental du partenaire produisant les références (Barr & Keysar, 2002 ; Keysar, 1997). L'objectif de la thèse est de montrer que l'accessibilité en mémoire des références du terrain commun influence non seulement l'adaptation à autrui, mais aussi la réutilisation des références, c'est-à-dire la production de références après leur intégration au terrain commun par les partenaires. Cinq expériences ont été réalisées en vue de caractériser la réutilisation des références en dialogue humain-humain et humain-système. Il s'agit également d'isoler les facteurs linguistiques et non-linguistiques susceptibles d'influencer l'accessibilité en mémoire des références appartenant au terrain commun. Les résultats ont confirmé que la réutilisation pendant le dialogue fait l'objet d'un biais égocentrique. La production par soi et par autrui au moment où les références sont intégrées au terrain commun constitue un déterminant important du niveau d'accessibilité de ces références. Par ailleurs, le niveau d'accessibilité des références varie au long de l'interaction. Sur la base de ces résultats, un nouveau modèle théorique est développé en vue de rendre compte du dialogue de manière dynamique. Les implications pour le dialogue humain-humain et humain-système sont discutées. / In human-human and human-system dialogue, the common ground (which includes the knowledge that the dialogue partners are aware of sharing; Clark & Marshall, 1981) serves as a basis for the production of partner-adapted references (Isaacs & Clark, 1987; Powers et al., 2005). The production of references which belong to the common ground is guided by their accessibility in memory from each speaker's point of view: the more accessible a reference, the more likely it is to be produced (Horton & Gerrig, 2005a, 2005b). In this sense, the production of references which belong to the common ground is subject to an egocentric bias, as it mainly reflects the state of mind of the speaking producing the references (Barr & Keysar, 2002; Keysar, 1997). The purpose of this thesis is to show that the accessibility in memory of the references which belong to the common ground guides not only partner-adaptation, but also reference reuse, that is, reference production after these references have been grounded by the speakers. Five experiments were conducted in order to characterize reference reuse in human-human and human-system dialogue. The aim was also to identify the linguistic and nonlinguistic factors which are likely to influence the accessibility in memory of the references which belong to the common ground. The results confirmed that reuse during dialogue is subject to an egocentric bias. Self- and partner-production at the time of reference grounding constitutes an important determinant of reference subsequent accessibility. What's more, reference accessibility varies throughout the interaction. On the basis of these results, a new theoretical model is developed in order to account for dialogue in a dynamic fashion. Implications for human-human and human-system dialogue are then discussed.

Personer med kommunikationsnedsättning gällande språk, tal eller röst, samt personer med kognitiva svårigheter som påverkar kommunikationsförmågan, kan få stöd av tolk anställd vid Taltjänst. Beroende på individens behov kan tolken ge stöttning på olika sätt och i olika situationer. För att tolken ska kunna stötta tolkanvändaren vid samtal med en tredje part brukar förberedande samtal genomföras. En tidigare studie har visat att förberedande samtal hade en avgörande roll för att gemensam grund skulle kunna uppnås i samtal mellan tolk, tolkanvändare och tredje part. Utifrån detta syftade föreliggande studie till att undersöka hur uppbyggandet av gemensam grund gick till under förberedande samtal mellan tolk och tolkanvändare. Ytterligare ett syfte med studien var att undersöka tolkars och tolkanvändares upplevelse av taltjänsttolkning.   Åtta tolkanvändare, med varierande svårigheter, och fem tolkar deltog i studien. Materialet bestod av inspelningar från åtta förberedande samtal och tolv intervjuer. Intervjuerna med tolkar och tolkanvändare analyserades utifrån innehållsmässiga komponenter. Under intervjuerna med tolkanvändare framkom att tolkanvändare upplever att det är lättare att samtala med personer de känner. Under intervjuerna med tolkar framkom att samtliga tolkar anser att förberedande samtal är viktigt inför samtal med tredje part. Det inspelade materialet av förberedande samtal transkriberades och analyserades. Resultatet visar att olika samtalsstrategier kan användas för att tolk och tolkanvändare ska nå gemensam grund. Tre samtalsstrategier som användes för uppbyggande av gemensam grund identifierades; begäran om förtydligande & begäran om bekräftelse av förståelse, visuellt stöd samt ljud & kroppsspråk. Tolkar använder sig i samtliga samtal av begäran om förtydligande och begäran om bekräftelse av förståelse. Både tolkar och tolkanvändare använder sig i merparten av samtalen av visuellt stöd. Icke-lexikala ljud och kroppsspråk används i de flesta samtal, oftast av tolkanvändare, men ibland även av tolkar. I de flesta av de studerade samtalen används en kombination av samtalsstrategier. Föreliggande studies resultat kan bidra till att medvetandegöra strategier som tolkar anställda vid Taltjänst använder sig av, vilket eventuellt kan leda till mer effektiv tolkning i framtiden. / People with communication disorders involving language, speech, voice, and cognitive impairment affecting the ability to communicate, can be provided with an interpreter from Speech Interpreter Service as a means of support. The interpreter provides the user with support specified to their needs. Preparatory conversations held between the interpreter and the user prior to a meeting with a third party are customary. A previous study has shown that preparatory conversations were crucial in order to reach common ground between interpreter, user and a third party. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate how the interpreter and the user establish common ground during preparatory conversations. A further aim was to investigate how interpreters and users experience Speech Interpreter Service.   Eight users with various communication disorders and five interpreters participated in the study. The data consisted of eight preparatory conversations and twelve interviews. The interviews with interpreters and users were analysed based on content. The interviews with users showed that they think it is easier to talk to people they know. The interviews with interpreters showed that they consider preparatory conversations before a meeting with a third party to be important. The data from preparatory conversations was transcribed and analysed. The result shows that various conversational strategies may be used in order to establish common ground between interpreter and user. The analysis revealed three conversational strategies beneficial to establishment of common ground between interpreter and user; clarification request & candidate understanding, visual support, and sounds & body language. Interpreters used clarification requests and candidate understandings in all preparatory conversations. Both users and interpreters used visual support in most conversations. Non-lexical sounds and body language was also used in most conversations, particulary by users but also by interpreters. The result of the present study may contribute to awareness raising of which conversation strategies interpreters are using, that might possibly lead to even more effective interpreting in the future.

I rapporten undersöks problemställningen ”Hur kan teorin om Gemensam grund och specifikt ”gemensamt avslut” bidra till en ökad förståelse för betydelsen av social interaktion i flexibel undervisning via datorförmedlad kommunikation?” i en fallstudie med fokus på videokonferenssystem vilka används i lärandemiljöer. Resultaten som framkom tydliggjorde att då ett sociotekniskt glapp uppstår tvingas studenterna att skapa alternativa strategier för att kunna uppnå just det här gemensamma avslutet. Därmed uppvisar också resultaten att drivkraften att uppnå gemensamt avslut inte endast är stark vid kommunikation som sker ansikte mot ansikte utan även vid datorförmedlad kommunikation. Fallstudiens resultat kan därmed ses som ett bidrag till grundforskningen i det att betydelsen av att uppnå gemensamt avslut vid datorförmedlad kommunikation uppvisas, vilket också förstärker betydelsen av Clarks (1996) teori om gemensam grund. Vidare har resultaten från fallstudien också använts för tillämpad forskning då designkonsekvenser tagits fram vilka beskriver hur videokonferenssystem i lärandemiljöer bör utformas för att studenter lättare ska kunna uppnå gemensamt avslut via systemen. Med hjälp av dessa designkonsekvenser kan det sociotekniska glappet reduceras och därigenom skapa ett framgångsrikt lärande för studenter vilka studerar via flexibelt lärande.

Objective This study tested the effectiveness of a brief, learner-centered, breaking bad news (BBN) communication skills training module using objective evaluation measures. Methods This randomized control study (N = 66) compared intervention and control groups of students (n = 28) and residents’ (n = 38) objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) performance of communication skills using Common Ground Assessment and Breaking Bad News measures. Results Follow-up performance scores of intervention group students improved significantly regarding BBN (colon cancer (CC), p = 0.007, r = −0.47; breast cancer (BC), p = 0.003, r = −0.53), attention to patient responses after BBN (CC, p < 0.001, r = −0.74; BC, p = 0.001, r = −0.65), and addressing feelings (BC, p = 0.006, r = −0.48). At CC follow-up assessment, performance scores of intervention group residents improved significantly regarding BBN (p=0.004, r = −0.43), communication related to emotions (p = 0.034, r = −0.30), determining patient's readiness to proceed after BBN and communication preferences (p = 0.041, r = −0.28), active listening (p = 0.011, r = −0.37), addressing feelings (p < 0.001, r = −0.65), and global interview performance (p = 0.001, r = −0.51). Conclusion This brief BBN training module is an effective method of improving BBN communication skills among medical students and residents. Practice implications Implementation of this brief individualized training module within health education programs could lead to improved communication skills and patient care.

In the use of medication and pharmaceutical products, non‐compliance is a major problem. One thing we can do something about is making sure consumers have the information they need. This thesis investigates how remote communication technology can be used to improve the availability for expressive advice‐giving services. Special attention is given to the balancing of expressiveness and availability. A solution is presented that uses 3D visualisation in combination with audio and video communication to convey advice on complex pharmaceutical products. The solution is tested and evaluated in two user studies. The first study is broad and explorative, the second more focused and evaluative. The solution was well received by participating subjects. They welcomed the sense of personal contact that seeing the communicating party over video link produced and appreciated the expressive power and pedagogical value of the 3D materials. Herbert Clark’s theory of use of language is suggested as a framework for the analysis of the dynamics of the relationship between consumer and advisor. / <p>Report code: LiU-Tek-Lic-2008:31.</p>