Em cumprimento às normas que regulam a transferência e deposição final de rejeitos radioativos, o inventário de radionuclídeos de cada embalado contendo tais rejeitos deve ser estimado e declarado. Os limites autorizados são definidos em função das doses de radiação que indivíduos do público podem vir a receber anualmente a partir do repositório. Tais limites se referem principalmente às concentrações de atividade, dadas em Bq/g, dos radionuclídeos presentes nos embalados com rejeitos. A grande maioria dos radionuclídeos emissores de raios-gama pode ter a respectiva concentração de atividade determinada diretamente por medidas externas aos embalados. Entretanto, determinação análoga para os radionuclídeos emissores exclusivos de partículas alfa ou beta, bem como de alguns emissores de raios-gama e/ou raios-X cuja energia, intensidade absoluta de emissão e/ou atividade são muito baixas denominados genericamente Radionuclídeos de Difícil Medição (RDMs) requer procedimentos radioquímicos complexos para isolar a espécie química de interesse dos interferentes presentes nas matrizes de rejeitos. Ademais, nesse caso é necessário coletar amostras de cada embalado, acarretando elevadas doses de radiação para os operadores e altos custos logísticos, decorrentes do grande número de embalados com rejeitos radioativos que necessitam de caracterização em uma instalação nuclear. Uma metodologia alternativa para abordar esse problema consiste em obter correlações empíricas entre alguns radionuclídeos possíveis de serem medidos diretamente, como 60Co e 137Cs denominados Radionuclídeos Chave (RCs) e os RDMs. Essa metodologia, denominada Fator de Escala, foi aplicada no presente trabalho com a finalidade de determinar tais correlações, na forma de Fatores de Escala ou Funções de Correlação, para os principais rejeitos de baixa e média atividades do reator nuclear de pesquisa IEA-R1. / Regulations regarding transfer and final disposal of radioactive waste require that the inventory of radionuclides for each container enclosing such waste must be estimated and declared. The regulatory limits are established as a function of the annual radiation doses that members of the public could be exposed to from the radioactive waste repository, which mainly depend on the activity concentration of radionuclides, given in Bq/g, found in each waste container. Most of the radionuclides that emit gamma-rays can have their activity concentrations determined straightforwardly by measurements carried out externally to the containers. However, radionuclides that emit exclusively alpha or beta particles, as well as gamma-rays or X-rays with low energy and low absolute emission intensity, or whose activity is very low among the radioactive waste, are generically designated as Difficult to Measure Nuclides (DTMs). The activity concentrations of these DTMs are determined by means of complex radiochemical procedures that involve isolating the chemical species being studied from the interference in the waste matrix. Moreover, samples must be collected from each container in order to perform the analyses inherent to the radiochemical procedures, which exposes operators to high levels of radiation and is very costly because of the large number of radioactive waste containers that need to be characterized at a nuclear facility. An alternative methodology to approach this problem consists in obtaining empirical correlations between some radionuclides that can be measured directly such as 60Co and 137Cs, therefore designated as Key Nuclides (KNs) and the DTMs. This methodology, denominated Scaling Factor, was applied in the scope of the present work in order to obtain Scaling Factors or Correlation Functions for the most important radioactive wastes with low and intermediate-activity level from the IEA-R1 nuclear research reactor.

Som blivande lärare i biologi och kemi på gymnasiet är det intressant att undersöka elevers inställning till dessa ämnen. Finns det en parallell mellan elevers intresse för en kurs och vad elever upplever är en svår kurs? För att kunna göra en jämförelse mellan kurserna har studien gjorts utifrån ämnesomsättningen i Biologi 2 samt Kemi 2. Syftet har varit att ta reda på vad som påverkar gymnasieelevernas intresse till Biologi 2 och Kemi 2, samt vilken kurs de tycker är svårast. Syftet har även varit att undersöka elevernas beskrivning av ämnesomsättningen i de båda kurserna. Studien behandlar även vad lärare i kurserna tror att eleverna har svarat på dessa frågor. Studien har genomförts genom enskilda kvalitativa intervjuer med 20 gymnasieelever samt två lärare från ett naturvetenskapligt program. Intervjuresultatet visade att 94 procent av eleverna tyckte att Kemi 2 var svårt och ointressant. Kemikursen innehöll delar som de hade svårt att relatera till samt var svåra att koppla till sin vardag. Biologi 2 beskrevs som mer intressant då kursen bland annat var lättare att koppla till vardagen. Elevernas beskrivningar av ämnesomsättningen i de båda kurserna hade stora skillnader. Eleverna beskrev området utifrån spjälkning av näringsämnena i Biologi 2, men utifrån cellandningen i Kemi 2. Studien har givit ny kunskap om gymnasieelevers inställning till Biologi 2 och Kemi 2. För att ta reda på varför eleverna har beskrivit ämnesomsättningen olika i de båda kurserna samt varför Kemi 2 anses vara en svår kurs krävs vidare forskning. / As a future teacher in biology and chemistry in high-school it’s interesting to investigate students' attitude towards these courses. Is there a parallel between students' interest in a course and what they experience is a difficult course? To make a comparison, the study has been done based on the metabolism in Biology 2 and Chemistry 2. The purpose has been to find out what influences the high schoolers' interest in Biology 2 and Chemistry 2, and what course they find most difficult. It has also been to investigate how students describe the metabolism in both courses. The study corporate what teachers think that the students have answered on these questions. The study has been conducted through individual qualitative interviews with 20 high-school students and two teachers from a science program. The result showed that 94% of the students felt that Chemistry 2 was difficult and uninteresting. Chemistry included parts that students had difficult to relate to and to connect to their everyday lives. Biology 2 was described as more interesting as the course easier connected to their everyday life. The students' descriptions of the metabolism in both courses differed. The students described the area from the digestion of nutrients in biology, but from the respiration in chemistry. The study has given new knowledge of high-school students attitudes towards Biology 2 and Chemistry 2. To find out why the students have described the metabolism differently in both courses and why Chemistry 2 is considered a difficult course, further research is required.

Resumo UCHÔA-FIGUEIREDO, L. R. O impacto da doença na vida cotidiana dos cuidadores de crianças com epilepsia de dificil controle. 2009. 260f. Tese (Doutorado) Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 2009. A notícia de que o filho tem uma doença crônica remete os pais a uma crise em relação às expectativas decorrentes do desejo do filho idealizado. A família sofre pela incerteza da evolução da doença e suas possíveis consequências. A mãe, comumente, torna-se a cuidadora principal, ajudando a suprir necessidades, apresentando uma vida ocupacional deficitária, pois despende tempo, energia física e emocional, sofrendo perdas, sobrecarga de atividades e comprometendo a sua qualidade de vida. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi conhecer as mudanças que ocorrem na vida cotidiana do cuidador primário de pacientes, com diagnóstico de Epilepsia de Difícil Controle Infantil associado à encefalopatia crônica não evolutiva, avaliar a qualidade de vida e a sobrecarga em função da situação de adoecimento e verificar a relação desta sobrecarga emocional com a percepção dos cuidadores, sobre sua qualidade de vida. Avaliaram-se 50 cuidadores de crianças entre 7 e 12 anos, de ambos os sexos, com diagnóstico confirmado há cinco anos, e que estavam nesta função há pelo menos dois anos. A pesquisa foi aprovada pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa Envolvendo Seres Humanos do HCFMRP e foi realizada no Serviço de Epilepsia Infantil do mesmo hospital. Foram utilizados: prontuários médicos das crianças, entrevista semi-estruturada enfocando o adoecimento, o cuidar e a vida cotidiana, os questionários de sobrecarga, Caregiver Burden Scale e de Qualidade de Vida, WHOQOL-bref. Os dados obtidos na entrevista foram analisados segundo o Sistema Quantitativo Interpretativo. Os dados do WHOQOL-bref e da Caregiver Burden Scale foram submetidos à análise estatística, de acordo com as normas do instrumento. Posteriormente, através da técnica dos quadrantes e da análise de coeficiente não paramétrica de Spearman, os dados foram correlacionados, no sentido de verificar possíveis relações entre aspectos da vida cotidiana, sobrecarga e percepção, por parte dos cuidadores, de sua qualidade de vida. Os resultados possibilitaram conhecer que houve mudança, diminuição do convívio social, alteração na vida profissional e estresse na vida do cuidador em decorrência do ato de cuidar. Em relação à qualidade de vida, pôde-se constatar que o domínio meio ambiente apresentou maior satisfação, enquanto que o menor índice ficou com as relações sociais, indicando assim a importância da rede de apoio social para o cuidador. A variável tempo de cuidado indicou que, quanto maior este for, maior a satisfação com relação ao bem-estar psicológico, meio ambiente e relações sociais. Identificaram-se dois tipos de sobrecarga, a velada e a declarada. Conclui-se que o impacto do adoecimento da criança interfere diretamente na vida cotidiana e nas relações dos cuidadores, assim como na qualidade de vida, porém, percebe-se que recursos estruturais e emocionais contribuem para minimizar os efeitos negativos sobre os cuidadores. Neste sentido ressalta-se a importância da equipe multidisciplinar oferecendo amparo informativo, técnico, troca de experiência e suporte aos cuidadores. / UCHÔA-FIGUEIREDO, L. R. Disease impact on the daily lives of caretakers of children with Difficult to Control Epilepsy. 2009. 260p. Thesis (PhD) Faculty of Philosophy, Science and Humanities of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, 2009. Acknowledging that a child has a chronic disease throws parents into a crisis related to expectations of a desired idealized descendant. The family is uncertain about disease evolution and possible consequences. However, it is the mother, who as a rule, becomes the main caretaker, helping to supply all necessities but showing a occupational life full of short-comings caused by spent time and physical and emotional energy. Her quality of life is further compromised by the suffered losses and work burden. This study aimed to investigate changes in the daily life of primary caretakers of patients diagnosed with Difficult to Control Child Epilepsy associated to non-evolutive chronic encephalopathy , and to evaluate effects of the overload as a function of disease onset on the quality of life. Perception by caretakers of disturbances in their own quality of life by the emotional burden was also verified. The fifty caretakers evaluated were taking care, for at least two years, of children 7 to 12 years old, from both sexes and with a confirmed diagnosis of five years. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee on Research with Human Beings of the University Hospital, Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo (HCFMRP) and was conducted at the Child Epilepsy Service of the same Hospital. Data were obtained through the children medical records, half-structured interviews addressing onset of the disease and daily care, and completion of the overload questionnaires ,Caregiver Burden Scale and Quality of Life, WHOQOL-bref. Data from interviews were analyzed by the Interpretation Quantitative System and the ones from WHOQOL-bref and Caregiver Burden Scale submitted to statistical analysis according to the rules of the instruments. Using the quadrant technique and analysis of the non-parametric Spearman coefficient, the data were further correlated to verify the existence of a relationship between aspects of burdened daily life and perception of their quality of life by caretakers. Results showed that the act of care did produce changes in the life of the caretaker, characterized by decreased socializing , disturbed professional life and stress . Considering quality of life, environmental factors were more satisfying than the ones of social relations, emphasizing the importance of social support in the life of a caretaker. As to the variable related to care duration, the longer it lasted the higher satisfaction in psychological well being, environment and social interchange were achieved . Two types of burdens were identified, one concealed and one declared. It is concluded that onset of disease in children does directly interfere in the daily life and relationships of caretakers, thus in their quality of life. However, by showing the contribution of structural and emotional resources to minimize the negative effects on caretakers, the importance of supportive information, techniques and exchange of experiences provided by a multi-professional team is also emphasized.

在試題難易度分析上，傳統方式常以答對率或得分率的高低來認定試題的難易度。但答對率或得分率高低並不能真正表達應試者在答題時的難易感受程度。過去研究指出影響數學科試題難易度的主要因素有三：評量的數學內容、解題時的思考策略及解題所需的步驟數。 本論文針對影響數學科試題難易度的三個主要因素進行分析統計。以模糊統計的角度，提出非固定權重因子之二維模糊數。應用模糊數絕對距離的概念以摒除族群中異端值，最後針對不同族群進行難易指標分析與檢定。 / On the basis of difficulty analysis, the hit rate or the scoring rate are considered as the index of the difficulty of the questions traditionally. However, these rates can not represent how test takers feel when taking tests. According to the previous papers on this subject, they note three factors to affect the difficulty analysis on math questions the content of the evaluation, the strategies of question solving, and the required steps to solve a question. This research is focused on the three major factors which influence the difficulty of math examinations. With the angle of fuzzy statistics, a two-dimension fuzzy number will be presented with non-fixed weighted factors. By applying the absolute distance concept of fuzzy number, the extreme values are excluded. Consequently, the indices of difficulty from different groups can be tested and analyzed.

The aim of this study was to research how social-work professionals apprehend, manage and influence difficult conversation.  This study is based on a qualitative method and we did qualitative interviews with eleven social-work professionals in three municipalities located in southern Sweden. In addition to our research on difficult conversation we decided to study easy conversation. Our result show that there isn’t any special subjects that creates difficult conversation, but it is the absent of conversation that makes it difficult. There are several different ways of managing difficult conversation; some social-work professionals use conversation methods others use different strategies. Social-work professionals can also find support from other colleagues and guidance from an instructor. The influence on the conversation can be divided into two different levels; one is the professionals control over the conversation. The other is that their thoughts and emotions can influence. Implemented interviews in this study show that the easy conversation is the opposite of difficult conversation; it is easy to carry on a conversation when the client is motivated. Our study also shows catchall terms to make a good conversation; create a good alliance, reaffirm, listen, show empathy and curiosity. The most important conclusion drawn from our study is that difficult conversation is the absent of conversation.

La investigación trata sobre determinados factores contextuales que influyen en la motivación, percepciones y expectativas de futuros docentes que están siendo formados en una Institución de Formación de Maestros (Recinto Juan Vicente Mosco), situada en la provincia de S. Pedro de Macorís (República Dominicana). Tras analizar y describir determinadas condiciones contextuales e históricas, y realizar una revisión de literatura especializada, la investigación, con un estudio de campo en el que se han aplicado cuestionarios y entrevistas, ha recabado las perspectivas de los sujetos informantes sobre las variables objeto de estudio y sus relaciones. El tratamiento, análisis e interpretación de los datos ha permitido extraer conclusiones relevantes para la formación docente y la política social y educativa del país dominicano, proponiendo para ello una serie de recomendaciones empírica y teóricamente fundadas. / The research has focused some of the historical and contextual conditions influencing prospective teachers motivation, perceptions and expectations related to the teaching profession in a institution for Teachers Education (Recinto Juan Vicente Mosco), placed at the province of the S. Pedro de Macorís (República Dominicana). After analyzing and describing some of the relevant historical and contextual conditions and undertaking a revision of the specialized literature, the inquiry, through a field study where questionnaires and interviews have been applied, has focused the prospective teacher perspectives about relevant variables and their relationship. Data analysis and interpretation allowed to get relevant conclusions for teacher education so as for the social and education policy in the country, proposing empirical and theoretical founded recommendations.

According to previous research, internalizing and externalizing problems tend to be comorbid or co-occur at different ages in development (Angold, Costello, & Erkanli, 1999). The question that this dissertation addresses is how and why internalizing and externalizing problems, two disorders that represent separate forms of psychopathology, co-occur in children. This is an important question for the developmental psychopathology perspective because an appreciation of the concept of co-occurrence is essential for explaining the development and taxonomy of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, and for understanding the etiology and course of these symptoms (Achenbach, 1990). Attempts to explain co-occurrence have proposed that co-occurring psychopathology might represent distinct, meaningful syndromes (Angold & Costello, 1992; O’Connor et al., 1998), and in support of this idea, evidence of the existence of pure and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems has been found (Keiley et al., 2003). However, no previous study has identified heterogeneous developmental patterns of pure or combined internalizing and externalizing problems within a dynamic framework by taking trajectories of change into account. This dissertation uses data from the NICHD study of Early Child Care to explore the co-occurrence between internalizing and externalizing problems from age 2 to 12 with the use of Latent Class Growth Analysis. The sample included 1232 children (52% male). Different groups of children exhibiting low/normative, pure internalizing, pure externalizing, and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems across the 10 year period were identified. The higher risk groups deviated from the low/normative group in terms of antecedents, SES risk, medical risk, difficult temperament, and home environment. Moreover, children who exhibited pure moderate externalizing problems, and children who exhibited chronic externalizing problems, with and without co-occurring internalizing problems, engaged in more risky behaviors and were more likely to have friends who also engaged in risky behaviors. Furthermore, the pure chronic externalizing group and the groups scoring high on internalizing problems, with and without co-occurring externalizing problems, were more asocial with peers. Finally, children exhibiting chronic co-occurring externalizing and internalizing problems were more excluded by peers in comparison to the rest of the sample’s population.

Syftet med studien är att belysa hur chefer och personalansvariga inom olika organisationer upplever svåra samtal i arbetsrelaterade situationer. Vi önskar komplettera tidigare forskning inom området svåra samtal med en mer socialpsykologisk inriktning som analysverktyg. Med hjälp av kvalitativ metod i form av sju semistrukturerade intervjuer når vi förståelse för hur chefer och personalansvariga upplever svåra samtal i arbetsrelaterade situationer. Vi besvarar följande frågor i studien: Hur upplever chefer och personalansvariga inom olika organisationer svåra samtal? Vilka faktorer kan bidra till att chefer och personalansvariga anser att samtal är svåra eller inte? De slutsatser som kan dras utifrån denna studie är att de intervjuade cheferna och personalansvariga anser att det finns svåra samtal på arbetsplatsen. Sammanfattningsvis uppleverintervjupersonerna att samtal som inkräktar på den personliga sfären är svårast. Exempelvis missbruksproblematik, dålig hygien och sjukdom är svåra samtalsämnen. Samtliga chefer och personalansvariga betonar vikten av förberedelser innan de påbörjar samtalen. Sammanfattningsvis ser intervjupersonerna arbetet mer som en yrkesroll och med hjälp av fakta känner de sig säkrare i delgivningen av svåra besked. Empati anses betydande för samtalets utgång. Vardagliga samtalsämnen som upplevs lätta kan visa sig svåra, eftersom de blir oförberedda inför situationen, vilket kan skapa svårigheter. / The study aims to shed light on how managers and human resources managers in different organizations experiencing difficult conversations in work-related situations. We wish to complement previous research in the area difficult conversation with a wider social psychological approach as analysis tools. Using qualitative methods in form of seven semi-structured interviews, we reach an understanding of how managers and human resource managers are experiencing difficult conversations in work-related situations. The questions we answer in this study are: How do managers and human resources managers in different organizations experience difficult conversations? Which aspects of the conversation contribute the experience of a conversation as difficult or not? The conclusions to be drawn from this study are that the interviewed managers and human resource managers believe that difficult conversations exist at work. In conclusion, the respondents perceive the conversations as intrusive of the personal sphere are the most difficult. For example, substance abuse problems, poor hygiene and diseases are difficult topics. All managers and human resource managers stress the importance of preparation before conversations. In summary, the respondents work more as a professional role and using the facts, then they feel safer in the service of non positive news. Empathy is considered important for the conversations. Everyday topics that are perceived ease, may prove difficult because they are unprepared for the situation, which can create difficulties.

Bakgrund: En del patienter som vårdas inom slutenvårdspsykiatrin ses av sjuksköterskor svårare att vårda. Dessa patienter riskerar få en sämre vård än andra patienter. Genom att belysa sjuksköterskors egna förklaringsmodeller till varför patienterna uppfattas som svåra kan fokus riktas mot en utsatt patientgrupp inom den svenska slutenvårdspsykiatrin. Syfte: Att beskriva sjuksköterskors egna uppfattningar om varför patienter upplevs som svåra att vårda inom den slutna psykiatriska vården. Metod:Fem intervjuer med sjuksköterskor arbetandes inom slutenvårdspsykiatrin genomfördes. Intervjuerna var semistrukturerade och en intervjumall användes för att beröra studiens frågeområden. De transkriberade intervjuerna analyserades med hjälp av en kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat:Fem olika kategorier framträdde ur materialet vilka återspeglade de intervjuade sjuksköterskornas förklaringar till varför en patient uppfattas som svår inom den psykiatriska slutenvården: Patientens negativa beteenden, omständigheter kring patienten, personalens känslor, personalens beteenden, dåligt anpassad vårdorganisation samt lätta patienter. Diskussion: Det finns många paralleller mellan patienter som uppfattas som svåra och en icke fungerande vårdrelation mellan sjuksköterska och patient. En modell presenteras som beskriver hur patienter i den slutna psykiatriska vården uppfattas som svåra utifrån ett sjuksköterskeperspektiv.

Les organitzacions residencials per a nens-nenes i per a joves són una alternativa sòcio-educativa pel que fa al camp de l’inadaptació social. Es tracta d’una alternativa promoguda des dels Serveis Socials (S.S.), que proven cada cop més d’orientar les intervencions des d’una perspectiva educativa, que és la que pot millor –a partir de l’immersió dels individus en processos d’aprenentatges– aportar eines pel canvi personal i pel canvi social. Els objectius d’aquesta investigació han estat els següents: A) Analitzar d’una manera crítica la realitat organitzativa actual dels centres residencials d’atenció a l’infantesa o la joventut amb problemàtica social situats a la comarca del Barcelonès. B) Establir els elements estructurals fonamentals en l’organització d’un centre i les seves relacions. C) Integrar el model organitzatiu dins d’un model general de funcionament. / Las organizaciones residenciales para niño/as y jóvenes constituyen una alternativa socio-educativa en el campo de la inadaptación social, alternativa promovida desde los Servicios Sociales (S.S.) Los S.S. intentan, cada vez mas, orientar las intervenciones desde una perspectiva educativa que es la que puede, a partir de la inmersión de los individuos en procesos de aprendizajes, aportar herramientas tanto para el cambio personal como social. Los objetivos de la investigación han sido: A) Analizar críticamente la realidad organizativa actual de centros residenciales de atención a la infancia o juventud con problemática socio-familiar del Barcelonès. B) Establecer los elementos estructurales fundamentales en la organización de un centro y sus relaciones. C) Integrar el modelo organizativo en el marco de un modelo general de funcionamiento.