A ativação do oxigênio molecular em suas espécies reativas é uma constante ameaça aos organismos fotossintéticos, uma vez que os cloroplastos são compartimentos celulares altamente susceptíveis ao estresse oxidativo. Sob condições normais, a geração de ERO nestas organelas é lenta e controlada, embora possa ser exacerbada pela exposição a xenobióticos e outros fatores de estresse ambiental. Como a intoxicação por metals poluentes é uma importante fonte de estresse oxidativo em sistemas biológicos, a resistência de organismos fotossintéticos ao estresse metálico deve ser dependente de adaptações bioquímicas que previnam o insulto oxidativo em seus cloroplastos. Com o intuito de investigar esta hipótese, os níveis de antioxidantes cloroplásticos e os padrões de indução da enzima SOD foram estudados no dinoflagelado marinho G. polyedra, sob diferentes modelos de estresse metálico. Primeiramente, os efeitos dos metals poluentes Hg2+, Cd2+, Pb2+ e Cu2+, sobre alguns aspectos fisiológicos deste dinoflagelado, foram avaliados por bioensaios de toxicidade. G. polyedra se mostrou altamente sensível a estes metals, os quais causaram aumentos significativos de mortalidade celular, alta frequência de flashes bioluminescentes e formação de cistos assexuais, em concentrações relativamente baixas. A escala de toxicidade encontrada foi Hg2+> Cu2+>Cd2+> Pb2+, de acordo com seus respectivos valores de CE50. O encistamento parece ser uma importante estratégia celular de resistência à toxicidade de metals, em particular a Pb2+ e Cu2+, uma vez que as células tratadas com estes metals foram capazes de retomar, parcial ou completamente, o estado fisiológico normal quando inoculadas em meio livre de metals tóxicos. Com base nos bioensaios de toxicidade, dois modelos de estresse metálico, crônico e agudo, foram estabelecidos e o balanço oxidativo, em cloroplastos isolados de G. polyedra, avaliado nestas condições experimentais. Diferentes respostas antioxidantes foram verificadas de acordo com o metal e o modelo de estresse aplicado. Em geral, células cronicamente expostas a metals exibiram aumentos de atividade das enzimas antioxidantes SOD e Apx, alto poder redutor e níveis reduzidos do carotenóide peridinina, enquanto nenhuma alteração foi observada quanto aos níveis de β-caroteno. Em contraste, células submetidas a estresse metálico agudo exibiram níveis dobrados de β-caroteno, embora nenhuma alteração significativa tenha sido observada para os demais antioxidantes. A correlação entre o tratamento agudo e a instalação de estresse oxidativo foi inferida pelo consumo de oxigênio exacerbado e menor poder redutor, observados em células expostas aos metals. Em decorrência do estado pró-oxidante, aumentos de lesões oxidativas sobre lipídeos e proteínas cloroplásticas foram detectados predominantemente em células sob tratamento agudo. Respostas específicas da enzima SOD também foram estudadas, observando-se um aumento dose-dependente em sua atividade, que ocorreu nas primeiras horas de exposição aos metals. Das três isoformas detectadas em G. polyedra, apenas FeSOD e MnSOD foram induzidas pelos metals, enquanto os níveis celulares de CuZnSOD não variaram significativamente, nas mesmas condições experimentais. Além da indução por metals, estas duas isoformas também mostraram ser sintetizadas circadianamente em G. polyedra. A isoforma FeSOD foi detectada em cloroplastos deste dinoflagelado e a clonagem parcial do seu cDNA codificador, realizada por técnicas baseadas em PCR. Análises preliminares de filogenia molecular com esta isoforma cloroplástica de G. polyedra indicaram uma alta similaridade com FeSOD cianobacteriana, corroborando a teoria endosimbiôntica para a origem dos cloroplastos modernos. Induções de FeSOD, por exposição aos metals poluentes, incluíram aumentos nos seus níveis de mRNA, revelando um controle transcricional positivo, inédito em G. polyedra. Com relação à oscilação circadiana desta isoforma cloroplástica, níveis constantes de transcritos de FeSOD foram detectados ao longo de 24 h, evidenciando um controle circadiano distinto, ao nível traducional. A partir das informações obtidas nesta tese, conclui-se que os metals poluentes avaliados são extremamente tóxicos a G. polyedra e capazes de induzir um estresse oxidativo em seus cloroplastos, especialmente sob condições agudas de exposição. Durante o estresse metálico crônico, entretanto, a manutenção de uma alta capacidade antioxidante, incluindo o aumento imediato da expressão da FeSOD, é uma estratégia relevante na atenuação das lesões oxidativas em lipídeos e proteínas, prevenindo possíveis danos estruturais e perda de funções cloroplásticas. Esta modulação de antioxidantes cloroplásticos sugere que a adaptação bioquímica de G. polyedra inclui respostas rápidas e específicas ao sítio subcelular onde o estresse oxidativo é instalado, processo este importante na resistência deste dinoflagelado à exposição a metals poluentes. As diferentes possibilidades de regulação da FeSOD, reveladas neste trabalho, salientam ainda a importância desta isoforma na manutenção do equilíbrio oxidativo cloroplástico durante adversidades ambientais e lançam novas perspectivas a respeito do controle de expressão gênica, em G. polyedra. O presente trabalho contribui, portanto, para o entendimento dos componentes bioquímicos e moleculares de processos adaptativos em algas. / Oxygen activation to reactive species is a constant threat to photosynthetic organisms since chloroplasts are cell compartments highly susceptible to oxidative stress. Although moderate at normal conditions, the ROS generating-processes in such organelles can be highly accelerated by xenobiotics and some other environmental factors. Because the intoxication with pollutant metals is an important source of oxidative stress in biological systems, resistance of photosynthetic organisms to metal stress might be dependent on biochemical adaptations that prevent oxidative insult within their plastids. To investigate such hypothesis, the oxidative balance of chloroplasts and the induction pattern of the antioxidant enzyme SOD were evaluated in the marine dinoflagellate G. polyedra, under different conditions of metal stress. At first, toxicity bioassays based on survival were carried out with G. polyedra cells exposed to the pollutant metals Hg2+, Cd2+, Pb2+ and Cu2+. Cell viability significantly decreased under exposure to these metals, which were also able to stimulate the frequency of bioluminescent flashes and induce encystment of this dinoflagellate. The toxicity scale found to G. polyedra was Hg2+> Cu2+>Cd2+> Pb2+, based on the EC50 values of each metal. Induction of resting cysts appears to be an important strategy for cell survival, particularly during Pb2+ and Cu2+ treatments, since cells partially or completely excysted within 96 h after metal removal from the media, respectively. Chronic and acute models of metal stress were applied, based on the toxicity bioassays, and the oxidative balance in isolated chloroplasts of G. polyedra examined. Different antioxidant responses were verified according to the metal and model of stress. Cells chronically exposed to metals exhibited high activity of the antioxidant enzymes SOD and Apx, high GSH content and reduced peridinin levels, whereas no significant changes were detected in the β-carotene content. In contrast, cells subjected to acute metal stress displayed twice as much β-carotene but only slight variation in SOD, Apx and peridinin levels. The correlation of acute metal treatment and oxidative stress was inferred from the higher oxygen uptake and decreased GSH pool found in treated cells. In addition, increased oxidative damage to proteins and lipids occurred mainly in cells under acute stress. The specific responses of SOD to pollutant metal stress were also examined. A dose-dependent induction of SOD activity was found in the first hours of metal treatment. Among the three SOD isoforms detected in crude extracts of G. polyedra, FeSOD and MnSOD were the inducible ones, while non-significant changes in CuZnSOD levels were verified. Furthermore, both isoforms displayed a circadian rhythm of synthesis in this dinoflagellate. The FeSOD isoform was detected in chloroplasts of G. polyedra, and the partial sequence of its cDNA obtained by PCR-based cloning techniques. Preliminary analysis of molecular phylogeny indicated that dinoflagellate and other plastid FeSOD are highly similar to cyanobacterial FeSOD, reinforcing the theory for the endosymbiotic origin of modem chloroplasts. Induction of FeSOD by metal exposure included increases in its mRNA levels, revealing a novel mechanism of positive transcriptional regulation in G. polyedra. In contrast, the mRNA levels of FeSOD remained constant through out the circadian cycle, indicating a distinct circadian control at the translational level. We described here that the pollutant metals analyzed are extremely toxic and able to induce oxidative stress in chloroplasts of G. polyedra, particularly under acute conditions. However, under chronic conditions of metal stress, the maintenance of a high antioxidant capacity, with increased FeSOD expression, is a relevant strategy to prevent structural damage and loss of chloroplastic functions as a consequence of oxidative insult. Such antioxidant modulation within chloroplasts suggests that biochemical adaptation in G. polyedra involve immediate and specific responses at the subcellular site where oxidative stress is triggered. This adaptive process could contribute to the overall resistance of this dinoflagellate to pollutant metal stress. Moreover, the distinct levels of regulation found for FeSOD indicate the important role of this isoform in the oxidative balance of chloroplasts, and provide new insight on gene regulation in G. polyedra. The present work provides the first steps in the elucidation of the biochemical and molecular components of adaptive processes in algae.

A redução univalente de oxigênio molecular nas células produz intermediários altamente reativos tais como o íon radical Superóxido (O-•2), o radical hidroxil (HO•) e o peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2). Níveis muito altos ou baixos de tais espécies representam séria ameaça ao metabolismo celular. Diferentes estados patológicos têm sido relacionados com níveis anormais destas espécies em eritrócitos e plaquetas. A proteção biológica contra efeitos tóxicos associados com níveis excessivos de espécies ativadas de oxigênio, tem sido atribuída a três enzimas principais presentes em eritrócitos e outras células: superóxido dismutase, catalase e glutationa peroxidase. Neste trabalho, foram feitas dosagens dessas enzimas protetoras em eritrócitos de indivíduos portadores de porfiria aguda intermitente. Esta doença caracteriza-se por um defeito na biossíntese de heme e clinicamente manifesta-se por dor abdominal intensa, paralisia e distúrbios neuropsíquicos. Foram encontrados nos pacientes em crise aguda atividades elevadas de superóxido dismutase e de glutationa peroxidase enquanto que a atividade de catalase permaneceu normal. Tais resultados apontam a possibilidade de que as manifestações clínicas de IAP relacionadas com toxicidade por oxigênio. Estejam Comparou-se também a atividade destas três enzimas em eritrócitos de residentes na cidade de são Paulo com o de moradores de Vila Parisi, conhecida pelo seu altíssimo nível de poluiçao atmosférica. Os níveis de superóxido dismutase e de glutationa peroxidase são bem mais elevados (cerca de 1,5 vezes) nos indivíduos residentes em Vila Parisi. A elevação da concentração intracelular destas enzimas pode ser sua resposta ao aumento da taxa de oxidação da oxihemoglobina, a qual é conhecida fonte de íons superóxido. Estes dados demonstram profundas diferenças no metabolismo de 02 entre esses dois grupos e talvez uma possível adaptação metabólica dos moradores de Vila Parisi aos altos níveis de poluição a que estão expostos. / The univalent reduction of molecular oxygen in cells produces very reactive species such as the superoxide anion (O-•2), the hydroxyl radical (HO•) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Abnormally high or low concentrations of such species may represent a serious threat to the cellular metabolism. Indeed, several disorders have been associated with abnormal levels of these species in erythrocytes and platelets.The biological protection against toxic effects due to excessive levels of activated species of molecular oxygen has been attributed mainly to three enzymes occurring in erythrocytes and other cells: superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase. In the present work, we report the activities of SOD, GSH-Px and catalase in the erythrocytes of patients with intermittent acute porphyria (IAP), an inborn error in the heme biosynthetic pathway. The clinical manifestations of IAP include abdominal pain and neuropsychiatric symptons. In patients undergoing acute attack, we found increased levels of SOD and GSH-Px, while that of catalase remains unchanged. These results point to the possibility that the clinical manifestations of IAP are related to oxygen toxicity. We have also compared the activities of these enzymes in residents of the city of são Paulo (Brazil) and in subjects living in Vila Parisi (Cubatão, SP, Brazil), a village submitted to high levels of atmospheric pollution. The erythrocyte SOD and GSH-Px levels were found to be ca. 1.5 fold higher in residents of Vila Parisi. These high intracellular enzyme concentrations may reflect a biological defense against an increase in the rate of oxyhemoglobin oxidation, known to be a source of superoxide species. Our results point to important differences between the two populations with respect to the metabolism of oxygen and, perhaps, a metabolic adaptation in the residents of Vila Parisi to the dramatically high levels of atmospheric pollution.

O diabetes mellitus tipo 1 (DM1) está associado com condições pró-oxidantes, próinflamatórias e elevado risco cardiovascular, enquanto o exercício físico pode ser considerado um dos melhores instrumentos não farmacológicas para o tratamento do DM1. Nesse contexto, exercícios que propiciem um menor risco hipoglicêmico e diversos benefícios sobre a saúde devem ser estimulados. Um dos objetivos da tese foi verificar a influência da realização de exercícios de força (SE) antes ou depois do exercício intervalado de alta intensidade (HIIE) sobre o comportamento glicêmico durante e logo após uma sessão de esforço (estudo transversal) (manuscrito original 1). Entretanto, o principal objetivo desta tese foi comparar os efeitos do treinamento intervalado de alta intensidade (HIIT), do treinamento de força (ST) e da combinação destes (ST+HIIT), sobre marcadores sanguíneos inflamatórios, de estresse oxidativo (OS) e metabolismo glicêmico em pacientes com DM1 através de um ensaio clínico randomizado (ECR) (manuscrito original 2). Com relação ao estudo transversal (manuscrito 1), em três visitas, adultos fisicamente ativos realizaram 30 min de SE antes de 30 min de HIIE ou realizaram a ordem inversa da sessão (HIIE+SE) ou permaneceram em repouso nesse período (REST). A glicemia capilar foi mensurada a cada 15 min durante e até 60 min da recuperação. Comparando-se com os valores basais, a condição HIIE+SE reduziu a glicemia em 30, 45 e 60 min, enquanto SE+HIIE adiou esta queda glicêmica para a partir de 60 min. HIIE+SE também acarretou uma maior glicemia em 105 min quando comparado a 60 min. A quantidade ingerida de carboidratos durante as sessões, bem como a dose insulínica no mesmo dia antes e depois dos protocolos, além dos episódios noturnos de hipoglicemia, foram similares entre as três condições. Conclui-se que pacientes com DM1 propensos a desenvolver hipoglicemia associada ao exercício devem realizar SE antes do HIIE na mesma sessão. Com relação ao estudo principal (ECR) (manuscrito original 2), após 4 semanas de um período controle, pacientes fisicamente inativos com DM1 foram randomizados para realização de 10 semanas de HIIT, ST ou ST+HIIT, praticados 3x/sem. As sessões de HIIT duraram 25 min, as de ST 40 min, e as de ST+HIIT ~65 min. Os desfechos foram analisados através do modelo de equações de estimativas generalizadas (GEE), com post hoc de Bonferroni. ST, HIIT e ST+HIIT melhoraram parâmetros glicêmicos e antioxidantes, mas não os marcadores plasmáticos de inflamação e de OS. Interessantemente, as intervenções reduziram as concentrações de receptores solúveis para produtos finais da glicação avançada. Entretanto, o conteúdo intracelular das proteínas de choque térmico de 70 kDa aumentou somente depois do HIIT. Enquanto a dose diária de insulina utilizada reduziu apenas no grupo ST+HIIT, todos os protocolos induziram benefícios antropométricos, cardiorrespiratórios e funcionais. Sob uma perspectiva prática, conclui-se que um maior volume (ST+HIIT) de treinamento é necessário para o benefício adicional da redução insulínica diária. Já o HIIT, por exemplo, é diretamente aplicável para pessoas que reclamam da falta de tempo, podendo ser recomendado devido a vantagem extra com relação a proteínas anti-inflamatórios em células imunológicas. / Type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM1) is associated with prooxidant and proinflammatory conditions, besides an increased cardiovascular risk, while exercise may be considered one of the best nonpharmacological tools for DM1 treatment. In this context, exercises linked with a lower hypoglycemic risk and several health benefits should be stimulated. One of the goals of this thesis was to verify the influence of performing strength exercises (SE) before or after highintensity interval exercise (HIIE) on glycaemia during and postexercise (cross-sectional study) (original manuscript 1). However, the main objective of this thesis was to compare the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT), strength training (ST) or their combination (ST+HIIT), on blood inflammatory, oxidative stress (OS) and glycemic markers in DM1 patients using a randomized clinical trial (ECR) (original manuscript 2). Regarding the crosssectional study (original manuscript 1), in three visits, physically active adults performed 30 min of SE before 30 min of HIIE or performed the reverse order (HIIE+SE) or rested for 30 min (REST). Capillary glycaemia was measured each 15 min during and 60 min postexercise recovery. HIIE+SE lowered glycaemia at 30, 45 and 60 min compared with baseline concentrations, while SE+HIIE postponed this glucose decayment to 60 min and thereafter. HIIE+SE increased glycaemia at 105 min compared with 60 min. Carbohydrates ingested during exercise, insulin dosage at same day before and after protocols, and nocturnal hypoglycemia episodes were similar among the three conditions. DM1 patients prone to develop exercise-associated hypoglycemia should perform SE before HIIE in a single session. Regarding the main study (ECR) (original manuscript 2), after 4-week control period, physically inactive patients with DM1 were randomly assigned to 10-week HIIT, ST or ST+HIIT protocol, performed 3 x/week. HIIT sessions lasted 25 min, ST lasted 40 min and ST+HIIT sessions lasted ~65 min. Blood biochemical, anthropometric, strength and cardiorespiratory fitness variables were assessed. Outcomes were analyzed via generalized estimating equations (GEE), with Bonferroni post hoc analysis. ST, HIIT and ST+HIIT improved glycemic and antioxidant parameters, but not plasma inflammatory or OS markers. Noteworthy, interventions reduced soluble receptors for advanced glycation end products levels. However, intracellular heat shock protein 70 content increased only after HIIT. While daily insulin dosage decreased only in the ST+HIIT group, all training models induced anthropometric and functional benefits. From a practical clinical perspective, a higher volume (SE+HIIT) of training is required for the additional benefit of daily insulin reduction. The HIIT, for example, is directly applicable for people who claim lack of time, and it may be 13 recommended due to extra advantage concerning anti-inflammatory proteins at immunological cells.

Há, no Brasil, uma enorme diversidade de espécies vegetais, e um conhecimento popular de várias propriedades medicinais das mesmas. Dentre os estudos realizados com extratos de plantas, há um interesse especial na atividade antioxidante. Este trabalho, focado em atividade antioxidante, é dividido em duas partes: a primeira, utiliza a técnica de RPE para estudar a ação dos antioxidantes neutralizando os radicais livres, enquanto que a segunda utiliza a TFD para, em simulação computacional, ajudar a entender os resultados obtidos na primeira parte. Foram analisados 10 extratos vegetais: Swartzia langsdorffii, Machaerium villosum, Pterogyne nitens, Maytenus ilicifolia (casca de raiz), Pera glabrata, Aegiphyla sellowiana, Copaifera langsdorffii, Chrysophyllum inornatum, Iryanthera juruensis (folhas e sementes), Didymopanax vinosum. O estudo da atividade antioxidante com RPE utiliza dois métodos diferentes: o primeiro método mede a atividade antioxidante por meio do controle da quantidade de radicais livres, TEMPOL e DPPH, em contato com o extrato vegetal, enquanto que o segundo método utiliza o spin trap DMPO em conjunto com a reação de Fenton (Fe2+ + H2O2 => Fe3+ + HO- + HO) para analisar a ação dos extratos vegetais contra o radical hidroxila (OH?). A simulação computacional dos compostos TEMPOL, DPPH e DMPO é realizada em um método de primeiros princípios na Teoria do Funcional da Densidade, com uso de pseudopotenciais. O código utilizado é o SIESTA. As conclusões indicam que o extrato de Iryanthera juruensis, tanto de folhas quanto de sementes, exibe atividades antioxidantes bastante acentuadas, em todos os métodos utilizados. A simulação computacional aponta o TEMPOL menos reativo que o DPPH, devido a menor energia liberada em sua reação de redução. Sabendo que algumas destas espécies já são usadas popularmente por propriedades medicinais, estudos futuros para a correta identificação do agente antioxidante e seu possível uso, tanto na indústria alimentícia quanto na farmacêutica, deverão ser realizados. / There is, in Brazil, a great diversity of vegetable species, and a popular knowledge of several medicinal properties of the some of them. In studies carried out with plants? extracts, there is special interest in antioxidant activities. This work, focused in antioxidant activity, is divided in two parts: the first uses EPR technique to study the antioxidant activities neutralizing free radicals, while the second one uses DFT, in computational simulation, to understand the results obtained from the first part. Ten vegetable extracts were analyzed: Swartzia langsdorffii, Machaerium villosum, Pterogyne nitens, Maytenus ilicifolia (bark root extracts), Pera glabrata, Aegiphyla sellowiana, Copaifera langsdorffii, Chrysophyllum inornatum, Iryanthera juruensis (leaves and seeds), Didymopanax vinosum. The study with EPR uses two different methods: the first method measures the antioxidant activity by monitoring the amount of free radicals, DPPH and TEMPOL, that are in contact with the plant extract, the second method uses spin trap DMPO with Fenton reaction (Fe2+ + H2O2 => Fe3+ + HO- + HO) for the study of the plant extract antioxidant activity against the hydroxyl radical (OH?). The computational simulation of TEMPOL, DPPH and DMPO is carried out using a method of first principles within the Density Functional Theory and pseudopotentials. The code is SIESTA. The conclusions indicate that the Iryanthera juruensis extract, as of leaves as of seeds, exhibits accentuated antioxidants activities, in all of the used methods. The computational simulation indicated that the TEMPOL is less reactive than the DPPH, because the lower energy in its reduction reaction. As some of these species are already used popularly by medicinal properties, future studies for correct identification of the antioxidant compounds and its possible use, as in the food industry as in the pharmaceutical industry, should be realized.

Os mecanismos fisiopatológicos associados aos efeitos benéficos da reanimação guiada pela saturação venosa mista de oxigênio (SvO2) durante a sepse não são claros. Nosso objetivo foi avaliar os efeitos de um algoritmo de reanimação guiado pela SvO2 incluindo fluidos, noradrenalina e dobutamina na hemodinâmica, resposta inflamatória e estresse oxidativo cardiovascular durante um modelo experimental que se assemelha clinicamente ao choque séptico. Dezoito porcos anestesiados e cateterizados (35-45 kg) foram submetidos à peritonite por inoculação fecal (0,75 g/Kg). Depois de permanecerem hipotensos, antibióticos foram administrados e os animais foram randomizados em dois grupos: controle (n=9), com suporte hemodinâmico visando pressão venosa central de 8-12 mmHg, débito urinário de 0,5 ml/kg por hora, e pressão arterial média acima de 65 mmHg; e grupo SvO2 (n=9), com os objetivos acima referidos, além de SvO2 acima de 65%. As intervenções duraram 12 hs e incluíram Ringer Lactato e norepinefrina (ambos os grupos) e dobutamina (grupo SvO2). A resposta inflamatória foi avaliada pela concentração plasmática de citocinas, expressão de CD14 de neutrófilos, geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio e apoptose. O estresse oxidativo foi avaliado pelas concentrações de nitratos no miocárdio e no plasma, a atividade miocárdica e vascular de NAD(P)H oxidase, conteúdo de glutationa do miocárdio e expressão de nitrotirosina. A reanimação guiada por SvO2 foi associada com melhor índice sistólico, oferta de oxigênio e diurese. A sepse induziu em ambos os grupos um aumento significativo na concentração de IL-6, nas concentrações de nitrato de plasma e diminuição persistente na expressão de CD14 em neutrófilos. A apoptose e a geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio por neutrófilos não foram diferentes entre os grupos. As estratégias de tratamento não alteraram significativamente os parâmetros de estresse oxidativo. Assim, uma abordagem destinada a otimizar a SvO2 durante a sepse melhora a hemodinâmica, porém sem qualquer efeito significativo sobre a resposta inflamatória e estresse oxidativo. Os efeitos benéficos associados a esta estratégia podem estar relacionados a outros mecanismos. / The pathogenetic mechanisms associated to the beneficial effects of mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO2)-guided resuscitation during sepsis are unclear. Our purpose was to evaluate the effects of an algorithm of SvO2-driven resuscitation including fluids, norepinephrine and dobutamine on hemodynamics, inflammatory response and cardiovascular oxidative stress during a clinically resembling experimental model of septic shock. Eighteen anesthetized and catheterized pigs (35-45 Kg) were submitted to peritonitis by fecal inoculation (0.75 g/Kg). After hypotension, antibiotics were administered, and the animals were randomized to two groups: control (n=9), with hemodynamic support aiming central venous pressure 8 to 12 mmHg, urinary output 0.5 ml/Kg per hour, and mean arterial pressure greater than 65 mmHg; and group SvO2 (n =9), with the goals above, plus SvO2 greater than 65%. The interventions lasted 12 h, and lactated Ringer\'s and norepinephrine (both groups) and dobutamine (SvO2 group) were administered. Inflammatory response was evaluated by plasma concentration of cytokines, neutrophil CD14 expression, oxidant generation, and apoptosis. Oxidative stress was evaluated by plasma and myocardial nitrate concentrations, myocardial and vascular NAD(P)H oxidase activity, myocardial glutathione content, and nitrotyrosine expression. Mixed venous oxygen saturation-driven resuscitation was associated with improved systolic index, oxygen delivery, and diuresis. Sepsis induced in both groups a significant increase on IL-6 concentrations and plasma nitrate concentrations and persistent decrease in neutrophil CD14 expression. Apoptosis rate and neutrophil oxidant generation were not different between groups. Treatment strategies did not significantly modify oxidative stress parameters. Thus, an approach aiming SvO2 during sepsis improves hemoynamics, without any significant effect on inflammatory response and oxidative stress. The beneficial effects associated with this strategy may be related to other mechanisms

A esclerose lateral amiotrófica (ELA) é uma doença neurodegenerativa que afeta os neurônios motores levando a atrofia muscular e morte por insuficiência respiratória. Esta patologia se manifesta de forma esporádica ou familiar, que são indistinguíveis clinicamente. Mutações na enzima antioxidante superóxido dismutase 1 (hSod1) respondem por aproximadamente 20% dos casos familiares de ELA. Além disso, o caráter autossômico dominante destas mutações revela que a hSod1 adquire propriedades tóxicas aos neurônios motores. Atualmente, duas hipóteses não mutuamente excludentes existem para explicar o caráter tóxico das mutantes da hSod1 relacionadas à ELA. A primeira refere-se à produção de oxidantes pela atividade peroxidásica exacerbada das mutantes contribuindo para o estresse oxidativo observado em ELA. A segunda refere-se à agregação de proteínas como ocorre em outras doenças neurodegenerativas. Digno de nota, o radical carbonato produzido na atividade peroxidásica da hSod1 causa a formação de um dímero covalente da proteína análogo a uma espécie de hSod1 frequentemente detectada em modelos experimentais e pacientes da doença e associada à propriedade tóxica das mutantes. Desta forma, o presente trabalho buscou esclarecer o mecanismo de produção do radical carbonato pela hSod1, bem como caracterizar o dímero covalente da proteína para posterior estudo de sua formação em um modelo de ELA em ratos que superexpressam a mutante G93A da hSod1. Os estudos cinéticos da variação do pH sobre os efeitos de bicarbonato/CO2, nitrito e formato na atividade peroxidásica da hSod1, medidos pelo consumo de peróxido de hidrogênio e produção de radical, permitiram excluir o mecanismo de Fenton para explicar o ciclo peroxidativo da enzima em tampão bicarbonato em favor de outros intermediários reativos. Já, os experimentos de 13C RMN, modelagem molecular e cinética de fluxo interrompido com mistura assimétrica demonstraram que o ânion peroxomonocarbonato constitui o precursor do radical carbonato produzido pela hSod1. A caracterização do dímero covalente da hSod1 por proteólise com tripsina seguida de análise por HPLC/UV-vis e HPLC/ESI-MS identificou um peptídeo característico do dímero covalente da hSod1. A digestão enzimática em H2 18O demonstrou de forma inequívoca a natureza dímerica deste peptídeo pela marcação da extremidade C-terminal. Ainda, o sequenciamento do peptídeo dimérico por MS/MS revelou a estrutura primária ESNGPVKVW(ESNGPVKVWGSIK)GSIK, na qual as cadeias polipeptídicas estão ligadas através de um aduto de ditriptofano composto por resíduos Trp32 da proteína. Por fim, este peptídeo dimérico pode ser empregado como marcador bioquímico específico para o estudo do dímero covalente da hSod1 in vivo. A análise do extrato de proteínas das medulas dos ratos modelo de ELA identificou quinze candidatos a dímero covalente da hSod1 por Western-blot, sendo que dois deles foram excluídos por espectrometria de massa, pois tiveram o resíduo Trp32 identificado. O peptídeo ESNGPVKVW(ESNGPVKVWGSIK)GSIK não foi observado, porém as treze espécies restantes permanecem candidatas e deverão ser reexaminadas em trabalhos que darão sequência a esta tese de doutorado. Em suma, o peroxomonocarbonato constitui o intermediário na produção do radical carbonato pela hSod1 e o peptídeo ESNGPVKVW(ESNGPVKVWGSIK)GSIK uma ferramenta importante no estudo da agregação covalente da hSod1 em ELA. / Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease of motors neurons that causes muscle atrophy, weakness, and death by respiratory failure. This pathology occurs in both sporadic and familiar forms that are clinically indistinguishable. Mutations in the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase 1 (hSod1) respond to about 20% of the familiar cases of ALS. Besides, the autosomal dominant nature of these hSod1-associated ALS suggests that the mutants gain toxic properties to motor neurons. Currently, two hypotheses exist to explain the toxicity of hSod1 mutants but they do not exclude each other. The first one is related to the production of oxidants by the increased peroxidase activity of the ALS-linked mutants that could contribute to the oxidative stress reported in ALS. The second refers to protein aggregation as proposed in other neurodegenerative diseases. Noteworthy, the carbonate radical produced during hSod1 peroxidase activity leads to the formation of a covalent dimer of the protein similar to a hSod1 species often detected in experimental models and patients of the disease and implicated in the toxic properties of hSod1 mutants. Thus, the present work aimed to determine the mechanism of carbonate radical production by hSod1 and to characterize the covalent dimer of the protein in vitro followed by the study of covalent aggregates of hSod1 in a rat model of ALS that overexpresses the G93A mutant of the protein. The kinetic studies of the effect of bicarbonate/CO2, nitrite and formate in the peroxidase activity of hSod1 at various pH, measured by hydrogen peroxide consumption and radical production, permitted to exclude the Fenton mechanism to explain the enzyme peroxidative cycle in bicarbonate buffer in favor of other reactive intermediates. Furthermore, 13C NMR, molecular docking and stopped-flow experiments with asymmetric mixing demonstrated that the anion peroxomonocarbonate is the precursor of the carbonate radical produced by hSod1. The characterization of hSod1 covalent dimer by proteolysis with trypsin followed by HPLC/UV-vis and HPLC/ESI-MS analysis identified a peptide characteristic of the covalent dimer of the protein. The enzymatic digestion in H2 18 O irrefutably demonstrated the dimeric nature of this peptide because of the C-terminal labeling with oxygen-18 isotopes. In addition, sequencing of the dimeric peptide by MS/MS determined the primary structure ESNGPVKVW(ESNGPVKVWGSIK)GSIK, in which the polipeptide chains are crosslinked through a ditryptophan adduct formed by a covalent bond between the Trp32 residues of each subunit. So, this dimeric peptide can be employed as a biochemical marker for studying the hSod1 covalent dimer in vivo. The analysis of protein extracts from the spinal cord of the rat model of ALS by Western-blot identified fifteen candidates to hSod1 covalent dimer, but two of them were excluded by mass spectrometry analysis that identified unmodified Trp32 residues. Moreover, neither the dimeric peptide nor the Trp32 residue were observed in the remaining species. Therefore, these thirteen candidates must be reexamined in subsequent studies. In conclusion, the anion peroxomonocarbonate is the key intermediate in the production of the carbonate radical by hSod1 and the dimeric peptide constitutes a specific tool to study hSod1 covalent aggregation in ALS

As peroxirredoxinas constituem uma família de tiol-proteínas, que reduzem peróxido de hidrogênio, peróxidos orgânicos e peroxinitrito a água, álcool e nitrito, respectivamente, utilizando equivalentes redutores fornecidos pela tiorredoxina, tiorredoxina redutase e NADPH. As peroxirredoxinas são enzimas abundantes (constituem aproximadamente 0,7 % do total de proteínas solúveis presentes em leveduras) e foram identificadas em diversas espécies de animais, plantas e bactérias, porém seu papel fisiológico ainda é discutido. Até recentemente, as peroxirredoxinas eram consideradas pouco eficientes para detoxificar peróxidos, em comparação às catalases e heme-peroxidases. De fato, as constantes de segunda ordem determinadas para as reações de peroxirredoxinas com peróxido de hidrogênio eram da ordem de 104-105 M-1 s-1, valores muito menores que os de hemeproteínas (~107 M-1 s-1). Neste trabalho, um método de cinética competitiva foi desenvolvido para re-determinar essas constantes de velocidade, utilizando a peroxidase de raiz forte como competidora das peroxirredoxinas de S. cerevisiae, Tsa1 e Tsa2. Este método foi validado e as constantes de velocidade determinadas para Tsa1 e Tsa2 foram da ordem de k~ 107 M-1 s-1 para a reação com peróxido de hidrogênio e da ordem de k~10105 M-1 s-1 para a reação com peroxinitrito. Utilizando a mesma metodologia, foi possível ainda determinar o pKa da cisteína peroxidásica da Tsa1 e Tsa2 (Cys47), como sendo 5,4 e 6,3, respectivamente. Paralelamente, o papel fisiológico das peroxirredoxinas foi examinado em linhagens de S. cerevisiae com deleção de Tsa1, Tsa2 ou de ambas isoformas. Os estudos foram realizados sob condições fermentativas e a linhagem tsa1Δtsa2Δ se mostrou mais resistente ao peróxido de hidrogênio (1 mM) e o consumiu mais rapidamente que a WT. Além disso, a linhagem tsa1Δtsa2Δ produziu quantidades mais altas do radical 1-hidroxietila, produto da oxidação do etanol, que é o principal metabólito da levedura em anaerobiose. O mecanismo de formação do radical 1-hidroxietila foi examinado e a quantificação da concentração de ferro quelatável, ferro total e cobre mostrou que a reação de Fenton não era sua principal fonte. Outro mecanismo investigado foi a formação do radical através da atividade peroxidásica da Sod1, cuja expressão e atividade se mostraram aumentadas cerca de 5 e 2 vezes, respectivamente, na linhagem tsa1Δtsa2Δ. Na linhagem mutante ainda foi observado que o tratamento com peróxido de hidrogênio aumentou a concentração de radicais derivados e adutos do DNA, detectados por imuno-spin trapping e incorporação de 14C derivado da glicose. Em conjunto, os resultados deste trabalho reforçam a importância das peroxirredoxinas na defesa antioxidante e mostram que as respostas compensatórias empregadas pela levedura para contornar as deleções de Tsa1 e Tsa2 podem ser deletérias longo prazo. / Peroxiredoxins constitute a family of cysteine-based peroxidases that are able to reduce hydrogen peroxide, organic peroxides and peroxinitrite to water, alcohol and nitrite, respectively, through the use of reducing equivalents provided by thioredoxin, thioredoxin reductase and NADPH. Peroxiredoxins are abundant enzymes (correspond to approximately 0.7% of total soluble protein in yeasts) and have been identified in several species ranging from animals, plants and bacteria, but their physiological role remains under scrutiny. Peoxiredoxins were regarded as less eficient enzymes in comparison with catalases and heme-peroxidases for detoxification of peroxides. Second-order rate constants determined for the reaction of peroxiredoxins with hydrogen peroxide were in the range of 104-105 M-1 s-1, which is quite low, as compared with those of heme-proteins (~107 M-1 s-1). In the present work, a competitive kinetic approach with horseradish peroxidase was developed in order to determine the second order rate constant of the reaction of peroxiredoxins with peroxynitrite and hydrogen peroxide. This method was validated and permitted for the determination of the second order rate constant value of the reaction of Tsa1 and Tsa2 with peroxynitrite (k~105 M-1 s-1) and hydrogen peroxide (k~ 107 M-1 s-1) at pH 7.4, 25 °C. It also permitted the determination of the pKa of the peroxidatic cysteine of Tsa1 and Tsa2 (Cys47) as 5.4 and 6.3, respectively. In parallel, the physiological role of peroxiredoxins was examined in S. cerevisiae strains with deletion of Tsa1, Tsa2 or of both isoforms. Under fermentative conditions, tsa1Δtsa2Δ cells were more resistant to 1 mM hydrogen peroxide than WT cells, and consumed it faster. In addition, tsa1tsa2 cells produced higher yields of the 1- hydroxyethyl radical from the oxidation of the glucose metabolite ethanol, as shown by spintrapping experiments. A major role for Fenton chemistry in radical formation was excluded by comparing WT and tsa1Δtsa2Δ cells with respect to their levels of chelatable iron ions, total iron and copper ions, and of 1-hydroxyethyl radical produced in the presence of metal ion chelators. The main route for 1-hydroxyethyl radical formation was ascribed to the peroxidase activity of Sod1, whose expression and activity increased about five- and twofold, respectively, in tsa1Δtsa2Δ compared to WT cells. Relevantly, tsa1Δtsa2Δ cells challenged with hydrogen peroxide contained higher levels of DNA-derived radicals and adducts as monitored by immuno-spin trapping and incorporation of 14C from glucose into DNA, respectively. Taken together, our results reinforce the importance of peroxiredoxins in the antioxidant defense show that the compensatory responses employed by yeast to counterbalance the deletions of Tsa1 and Tsa2 may be deleterious in the long time range.

The techniques of surface deformation and mapping are useful tools for the visualization of medical surfaces, especially for highly undulated or branched surfaces. In this thesis, two algorithms are presented for flattened visualizations of multi-branched medical surfaces, such as vessels. The first algorithm is an angle preserving approach, which is based on conformal analysis. The mapping function is obtained by minimizing two Dirichlet functionals. On a triangulated representation of vessel surfaces, this algorithm can be implemented efficiently using a finite element method. The second algorithm adjusts the result from conformal mapping to produce a flattened representation of the original surface while preserving areas. It employs the theory of optimal mass transport via a gradient descent approach. A new class of image morphing algorithms is also considered based on the theory of optimal mass transport. The mass moving energy functional is revised by adding an intensity penalizing term, in order to reduce the undesired "fading" effects. It is a parameter free approach. This technique has been applied on several natural and medical images to generate in-between image sequences.

Le stress oxydatif et la formation des radicaux libres sont impliqués dans plusieurs mécanismes de la mort neuronale qui caractérisent la maladie d'Alzheimer. Les antioxydants sont reconnus comme une source de protection contre le stress oxydatif et peuvent avoir un effet protecteur sur le développement de la maladie d’Alzheimer. Cette étude visait à évaluer le potentiel antioxydant, par le biais du score « oxygen radical absorbance capacity » (ORAC), de l’alimentation habituelle de personnes âgées atteintes de la maladie d’Alzheimer en comparaison avec des témoins appariés pour l’âge sans problèmes cognitifs. L’hypothèse stipulait que les patients atteints de la maladie d’Alzheimer ont une alimentation dont le potentiel antioxydant est inférieur à celui des témoins sans problèmes cognitifs. L’étude a consisté en des analyses secondaires de données provenant de l’étude « Nutrition-Mémoire » (NMS), durant laquelle quarante-deux patients avec une démence du type Alzheimer (DTA) probable et leurs aidants étaient suivis pendant une période de dix-huit mois. Pour la présente étude, les données provenaient de trois jours de collecte alimentaire, ont été colligées au début (T0) de l’étude NMS, selon la méthode « Multiple-Pass ». Le potentiel antioxydant de l’alimentation a été déterminé à l’aide de la description des aliments énumérés dans la base de données des valeurs ORAC de l’USDA. Les résultats de l’étude ont montré que les patients avaient une alimentation dont le potentiel antioxydant était inférieur à celui des témoins (13784,07 ± 7372,70 μmol TE/100g contre 23220,54 ± 10862,55 μmol TE/100g, patients et témoins, respectivement; p<0,0001). Les analyses de régression hiérarchique pas à pas montraient que l’IMC, l’éducation, et le groupe (patients, témoins) étaient des facteurs influençant le score ORAC total. La consommation des aliments riches en antioxydants est un comportement préventif à faible risque qui pourrait bénéficier des individus susceptibles de développer la maladie d'Alzheimer. / Oxidative stress and the formation of free radicals are involved in several mechanisms of neuronal death that are characteristic of Alzheimer's disease. Antioxidants are known to help defend against oxidative stress and may protect against the development of Alzheimer's disease. This study aims to evaluate the antioxidant potential, using the “oxygen radical absorbance capacity” (ORAC) score of the diet of older adults people with Alzheimer's disease compared with cognitively-intact age-matched controls. It was hypothesized that the antioxidant potential of the diet of elderly people with Alzheimer's disease will be lower than that of controls without cognitive problems. The current study is a secondary analysis of data obtained from the "Nutrition-Memory study" (NMS). The NMS study recruited forty-two patients with probable Alzheimer’s disease, and their caregivers, and followed them over a period of eighteen months. The current study focuses on three days of dietary data collection, compiled at the beginning (T0) of the NMS study. The antioxidant potential of the diet was determined using the list of ORAC scores highlighted in the USDA database for the oxygen radical absorbance capacity of selected foods. Our results showed that the diet of patients (13784.07 ± 7372.70 μmol TE/100g) had a lower antioxidant potential than that of controls (± 23220.54 10862.55 μmol TE/100g). Moreover, BMI, education and group-status were factors that influenced the total ORAC score. Eating foods rich in antioxidants is a low risk preventative behaviour that could benefit individuals susceptible to developing Alzheimer’s disease.

Στόχος: Η νόσος του Alzheimer (ΝΑ) είναι η πιο κοινή μορφή άνοιας, η παθολογία της οποίας χαρακτηρίζεται εν μέρει από την εναπόθεση ινιδίων που σχηματίζονται από την αμυλοειδική πρωτεΐνη β (Αβ), τα οποία οδηγούν στην καταστροφή των χολινεργικών νευρώνων, πρωτίστως στον εγκεφαλικό φλοιό και τον ιππόκαμπο. Η εκτεταμένη αυτή απώλεια των νευρώνων είναι προοδευτική και έχει ως αποτέλεσμα την καταστροφή γνωστικών εγκεφαλικών λειτουργιών και τη δημιουργία σοβαρότατης, μη αναστρέψιμης άνοιας. Η Αβ-επαγόμενη τοξικότητα συνοδεύεται από ποικίλα γεγονότα, συμπεριλαμβανομένου του οξειδωτικού στρες (O.S) το οποίο χαρακτηρίζεται από αύξηση των επιπέδων των ενεργά αντιδρώντων ειδών οξυγόνου (ROS) όπως το Η2Ο2. Έρευνες αναφέρουν ότι οι τοξικοεπαγόμενες κυτταρικές βλάβες, συνεισφέρουν σημαντικά στην νευροτοξικότητα και την παθολογία της ΝΑ. Με τα πρόσφατα δεδομένα να υποδηλώνουν άμεση συσχέτιση της ΝΑ με την εναπόθεση της Αβ, το οξειδωτικό στρες και την απώλεια της χολινεργικής διαβίβασης, το ενδιαφέρον της επιστημονικής κοινότητας έχει στραφεί, είτε στην ενίσχυση της αντιοξειδωτικής άμυνας του οργανισμού, είτε στη ρύθμιση του μεταβολισμού της αμυλοειδικής προ-πρωτεΐνης ΑΡΡ προς το μη-αμυλοειδογενές μονοπάτι καθώς επίσης και προς την ενίσχυση των μνημονικών διεργασιών. Τα φυσικά προϊόντα αποτελούν πηγή χρήσιμων φαρμακευτικών σκευασμάτων (π.χ. η γαλανταμίνη είναι ένα από τα εγκεκριμένα φαρμακευτικά σκευάσματα για τη ΝΑ) τα συστατικά των οποίων αποτελούν έναυσμα για το σχεδιασμό αποτελεσματικότερων φαρμάκων, σε σχέση κυρίως με τις ανεπιθύμητες δράσεις. Ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον μεταξύ των φυτών για τον ελλαδικό χώρο έχει το φυτό Crocus sativus L., το οποίο καλλιεργείται στο χωριό Κρόκος της Κοζάνης για τους κόκκινους στύλους του, οι οποίοι χρησιμοποιούνται ευρύτατα στη διατροφή ως άρτυμα (κρόκος ή σαφρόν). Ο κρόκος, πέραν των ιδιοτήτων του ως καρύκευμα, αποτελεί ένα φυτικό σκεύασμα με σημαντικές ιατρικές ιδιότητες, το οποίο έχει χρησιμοποιηθεί κατά κόρον στην παραδοσιακή ιατρική. Οι στύλοι του κρόκου περιέχουν ασυνήθιστα υδρόφιλα καροτενοειδή, τις κροκίνες, οι οποίες είναι γλυκοζίτες της κροκετίνης. Σκοπός της συγκεκριμένης διατριβής ήταν η μελέτη των νευροπροστατευτικών μηχανισμών των συστατικών των στύλων του φυτού Crocus sativus και άλλων ενδημικών ειδών Crocus με έμφαση στη νόσο του Alzheimer. To εκχύλισμα των στύλων του C. sativus (CSE) και τα συστατικά του, καθώς και άλλα ενδημικά είδη Crocus χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για την αξιολόγηση: (α) των αντιοξειδωτικών τους ιδιοτήτων και της επίδρασης τους στη συσσωμάτωσης της Αβ, τόσο in vitro, όσο και σε κυτταρικές καλλιέργειες (SH-SY5Y, HEK293, CHOAPP770) και (β) των μνημονικών διεργασιών, της οξειδωτικής κατάστασης του εγκεφάλου και της ενεργότητας της ακετυλοχολινεστεράσης (AChE) ενήλικων και γηραιών αρσενικών Balb-c μυών μετά από ενδοπεριτοναϊκή χορήγηση CSE (7-ημερών) (30 & 60 mg/Kg βάρος σώματος) (n = 9/ομάδα). Μεθοδολογία: Οι αντιοξειδωτικές ιδιότητες του εκχυλίσματος των στύλων προσδιορίστηκαν με εκτίμηση της ισοδύναμης με το Trolox ικανότητας να δεσμεύει ελεύθερες ρίζες (TEAC) και της ικανότητας αναγωγής του σιδήρου (FRAP), ενώ η επίδραση των φυτικών εκχυλισμάτων στη συσσωμάτωση ινιδίων της Αβ μελετήθηκε με ηλεκτροφόρηση σε πηκτή πολυακρυλαμιδίου παρουσία δωδεκυλοθειικού νατρίου (SDS-PAGE), τη μέθοδο της θειοφλαβίνης Τ και της δέσμευσης σε DNA. Η επίδραση των φυτικών εκχυλισμάτων στο μεταβολισμό της ΑΡΡ πραγματοποιήθηκε τόσο στα κυτταρικά πρωτεϊνικά εκχυλίσματα, όσο και στο θρεπτικό μέσο μετασχηματισμένων CHO κυττάρων (CHOAPP770), με ανάλυση κατά Western και με ανοσοκατακρήμνιση, ενώ οι επιπτώσεις του H2O2-επαγόμενου οξειδωτικού στρες, προσδιορίστηκαν με μέτρηση της κυτταρικής ζωτικότητας (ΜΤΤ assay), των επιπέδων ελευθέρων ριζών (DCF-DH2 assay) και της ενεργότητας της κασπάσης-3. Η αξιολόγηση της συμπεριφοράς των πειραματοζώων, πραγματοποιήθηκε με το τεστ παθητικής αποφυγής. Η μελέτη της αντιοξειδωτικής/αντι-αποπτωτικής δράσης των φυτικών εκχυλισμάτων σε ενήλικες και γηραιούς μύες πραγματοποιήθηκε σε ολικό εγκεφαλικό ομογενοποίημα και εκτιμήθηκε υπολογίζοντας την ικανότητα αναγωγής του σιδήρου (FRAP), των συγκεντρώσεων του ασκορβικού οξέος, της γλουταθειόνης, της μηλονικής διαλδεϋδης και της κασπάσης-3. Η μελέτη της πιθανής ανασταλτικής δράσης των εκχυλισμάτων στην ενεργότητα της AChE μελετήθηκε με τη μέθοδο του Ellman, ενώ ο τύπος αναστολής, προσδιορίστηκε με κινητικές μελέτες. Αποτελέσματα: Τα αποτελέσματα μας έδειξαν ότι, in vitro, τα εκχυλίσματα των στύλων των ειδών Crocus παρουσίασαν υψηλότερη αντιοξειδωτική ικανότητα από αυτή της τομάτας και του καρότου, καθώς και σημαντική δοσο- και χρονο-εξαρτώμενη ανασταλτική επίδραση στη δημιουργία ινιδίων της Αβ. Η trans-κροκίνη-4, ο διγεντιοβιοζυλ-εστέρας της κροκετίνης, το κύριο καροτενοειδές συστατικό του εκχυλίσματος των στύλων, προκάλεσε αναστολή της συσσωμάτωσης της Αβ ακόμη και σε χαμηλότερες συγκεντρώσεις από αυτή της διμεθυλοκροκετίνης (ένα συνθετικό ανάλογο της κροκετίνης το οποίο δεν φέρει σάκχαρα στα άκρα του), υποδηλώνοντας έτσι ότι η δράση των καροτενοειδών ενισχύεται από την παρουσία των σακχάρων. Εν συγκρίσει με τον C. sativus, ο C. boryi και ο C. niveus παρουσίασαν πολύ πιο ισχυρή αντιαμυλοειδική δράση, γεγονός που πιθανότατα να οφείλεται στη διαφορετική σύσταση τους. Στις κυτταρικές καλλιέργειες, τα αποτελέσματα ελέγχου του μεταβολισμού της ΑΡΡ με ανοσοαποτύπωση κατά Western, έδειξαν ότι μόνον το ολικό εκχύλισμα των στύλων του C. sativus, καθώς και η σαφρανάλη, μια εκ των επιμέρους συστατικών του, αύξησε τα επίπεδα έκκρισης των αμυλοειδικών (sAPPβ) και μη-αμυλοειδικών (sAPPα) μορφών της ΑΡΡ, στο θρεπτικό μέσο καλλιέργειας των CHOAPP770 κυττάρων. Η trans-κροκίνη-4 αύξησε τα επίπεδα έκκρισης των sAPPβ, γεγονός που υποδηλώνει την πιθανή εμπλοκή των μονάδων σακχάρων στη διαδικασία της αμυλοειδογένεσης. Δεν παρατηρήθηκε καμία μεταβολή στα επίπεδα έκφρασης της ολικής πρωτεΐνης (holoAPP), γεγονός που υποδηλώνει ότι η αύξηση των sAPPα/β στο θρεπτικό μέσο μπορεί να οφείλεται στη μετατόπιση της ισορροπίας του μεταβολισμού της ΑΡΡ προς το μονοπάτι της α- ή της β-εκκριτάσης. Επιπροσθέτως, ανοσοκατακρήμνιση της Αβ έδειξε ότι παρουσία των φυτικών εκχυλισμάτων, καμία μεταβολή δεν παρατηρήθηκε ούτε και στην αμυλοειδογένεση, στο σχηματισμό δηλαδή συσσωμάτων της Αβ, μεγάλου μοριακού βάρους, παρά την τάση προς αύξηση του p3 υπολείμματος. Η αύξηση που παρατηρήθηκε στην παραγωγή των διμερών δομών της Αβ παρουσία των συστατικών του C. sativus, εν συγκρίσει με τα ολικά εκχυλίσματα των στύλων των ειδών Crocus, υποδηλώνει ότι τα καροτενοειδή εμπλέκονται κατά κάποιον τρόπο στην διαδικασία της αμυλοειδογένεσης, ενισχύοντας τη δημιουργία και σταθερότητα των διμερών. Επώαση των κυττάρων με H2O2 οδήγησε σε μείωση της κυτταρικής ζωτικότητας, η οποία συνοδεύτηκε και από αύξηση των επιπέδων των ROS και ενεργοποίηση της κασπάσης-3. Τα ανωτέρω, αντιστράφηκαν πλήρως, ύστερα από επώαση των SH-SY5Y κυττάρων με εκχυλίσματα από τα τρία είδη Crocus, με τον C. sativus να είναι αποτελεσματικότερος όλων, ενώ εξίσου αποτελεσματικά ήταν και τα επιμέρους συστατικά του C. sativus, με το βαθμό αποτελεσματικότητας να διαμορφώνεται ως εξής: CRT≥Σαφρανάλης ακόμη και στις υψηλές συγκεντρώσεις Η2Ο2. Στην HEK293 κυτταρική σειρά, η συγχορήγηση της CRT και της σαφρανάλης με διαβαθμιζόμενες συγκεντρώσεις Η2Ο2, οδήγησε σε προστασία έναντι του Η2Ο2-επαγόμενου οξειδωτικού στρες και της παραγωγής ROS, εν αντιθέσει με το ολικό εκχύλισμα κρόκου, το οποίο δεν επέδειξε προστατευτική δράση. Τα αποτελέσματα αυτά υποδηλώνουν ότι τα επιμέρους συστατικά του C. sativus προστάτευσαν έναντι της κυτταροτοξικότητας του H2O2 σε όλα τα κυτταρικά συστήματα, μέσω μείωσης του οξειδωτικού φορτίου και της παραγωγής ROS. Αντιθέτως, επώαση των υπό μελέτη φυτοχημικών σε κυτταρικό σύστημα επιβαρυμένο με Αβ (μετασχηματισμένη CHO κυτταρική σειρά) προκάλεσε επιμέρους επιδείνωση της Η2Ο2-επαγόμενης τοξικότητας. Παρόλα αυτά, η χορήγηση κρόκου οδήγησε σε αύξηση των κυτταρικών επιπέδων της GSH, ενώ εξίσου σημαντική ήταν και η μείωση που παρατηρήθηκε στα επίπεδα της MDA, με το βαθμό αποτελεσματικότητας να διαμορφώνεται ως εξής: C. boryi=C. niveus=CRT≥Σαφρανάλης. Τα αποτελέσματα της χορήγησης CSE σε μύες έδειξαν στατιστικώς σημαντική βελτίωση στη μνήμη/μάθηση των ενηλίκων και γηραιών μυών. Παρατηρήθηκαν επίσης μειωμένα επίπεδα υπεροξείδωσης λιπιδίων και κασπάσης-3, αύξηση της συγκέντρωσης της ανηγμένης γλουταθειόνης και του ασκορβικού οξέος στον εγκέφαλο των μυών που τους χορηγήθηκε CSE. Επιπλέον, η δραστικότητα της διαλυτής σε άλας και σε απορρυπαντικό μορφής της AChE μειώθηκε στατιστικώς σημαντικά στους ενήλικες μύες μετά από χορήγηση CSE, σε αντίθεση με τους αντίστοιχους γηραιούς, όπου δεν παρατηρήθηκε καμία αλλαγή. Επιπροσθέτως, in vitro ανάλυση της ενεργότητας της AChE, έδειξε ότι παρουσία των απομονωθέντων κροκινών και της σαφρανάλης, παρατηρήθηκε δοσοεξαρτώμενη αναστολή της ενεργότητας του εν λόγω ενζύμου (μη-συναγωνιστική αναστολή) –όμοια με αυτή της γαλανταμίνης- εν αντιθέσει με το ολικό εκχύλισμα των στύλων των ειδών Crocus το οποίο δεν ήταν και τόσο δραστικό. Αυτός ο τύπος αναστολής υποδηλώνει ότι το σημείο πρόσδεσης τους βρίσκεται στο αλλοστερικό τμήμα του ενζύμου της AChE, το οποίο κατέχει, πιθανότατα, κύριο ρόλο και στη διέγερση της εναπόθεσης ινιδίων της Αβ. Συμπεράσματα: Η έλλειψη αποτελεσματικής θεραπείας έναντι της ΝΑ, κάνει τη χρήση φυτικών σκευασμάτων, πολλαπλών στόχων και με ισχυρές νευροπροστατευτικές ιδιότητες, να θεωρείται ως μια πολλά υποσχόμενη θεραπεία, η οποία θα είναι αποτελεσματική έναντι των μηχανισμών που υπόκεινται των νευροεκφυλιστικών ασθενειών, π.χ. του οξειδωτικού στρες, της συσσωμάτωσης των πρωτεϊνών, των συμπεριφορικών και μνημονικών αλλαγών κ.ά. Τα αποτελέσματα μας συγκλίνουν προς αυτή την κατεύθυνση, καθότι υποδηλώνουν την πιθανή χρήση των συστατικών των στύλων του C. sativus στην αναστολή της αμυλοειδογένεσης και της εναπόθεσης της Αβ στον ανθρώπινο εγκέφαλο, ενώ καταδεικνύουν, για πρώτη φορά, ότι η ευεργετική για τη μνήμη δράση που παρατηρήθηκε ύστερα από χορήγηση κρόκου στους ενήλικους και γηραιούς μύες, συσχετίζεται πιθανότατα με την υψηλή αντιοξειδωτική ικανότητα του εγκεφάλου και εν μέρει, την αναστολή της ενεργότητας της AChE (για την περίπτωση των ενηλίκων μυών). Παρόλα αυτά όμως, καμία αλλαγή δεν παρατηρήθηκε στα επίπεδα της AChE των γηραιών μυών, που είχαν λάβει εκχύλισμα κρόκου, παρά την ενίσχυση των αντιοξειδωτικών συστημάτων του οργανισμού, γεγονός που ενισχύει τη σπουδαιότητα της ενσωμάτωσης μιας υγιεινούς διατροφής για τη λειτουργία του εγκεφάλου, από την πρώιμη ενηλικίωση. Το γεγονός, όμως, ότι οι στύλοι του C. sativus αποτελούν μέρος της διατροφής μας ως άρτυμα (κρόκος, σαφράνι ή ζαφορά) μεγεθύνει την αξία αυτών των πειραματικών ευρημάτων αφού θα μπορούσαν να αξιοποιηθούν άμεσα. Η ταυτοποίηση των κροκινών ως ένα από τα κύρια δραστικά φυτοχημικά θα μπορούσε να αξιοποιηθεί στην ανάπτυξη νέων θεραπευτικών μέσων για τη νόσο του Alzheimer. Όμως, επιπρόσθετες μελέτες απαιτούνται προκειμένου να διερευνήσουμε την αποτελεσματικότητα αυτού του φυτικού εκχυλίσματος και των συστατικών του ως αντιαμυλοειδικά σκευάσματα. / Objective: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized pathologically by the deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide aggregates and neurofibrillary tangles, which lead to destruction of cholinergic neurons in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus. That loss is progressive and results in profound memory disturbances and irreversible impairment of cognitive function. Aβ-induced toxicity is accompanied by a variegated combination of events, including oxidative stress (O.S) which is characterized by an increase in the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as H2O2. Research indicates that cellular insults resulting from free radicals may be a major contributor to the neurotoxicity and pathology of AD. With recent findings suggesting links between AD, deposition of Aβ, O.S. and loss of cholinergic transmission, much attention has been devoted currently, either to antioxidant research or regulation of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) metabolism towards the non-amyloidogenic pathway, as well as to memory enhancing agents. Natural products are still a source of useful drugs (i.e. galanthamine, one of the approved therapies of AD) and of lead compounds for the design of more effective compounds with less side-effects. Of particular interest among the plants that grow in Greece, acquires the plant Crocus sativus, which is cultivated in Kozani, Greece, for its red-coloured styles, which are used as a spice (saffron). Saffron has been used for medicinal purposes for millennia. Its styles are a source of unusual polar carotenoids (crocins), i.e. mono- and di-glycosides of crocetin. The aim of the present study was to examine the possible neuroprotective mechnisms of Crocus sativus’ and other endemic Crocus species’ styles constituents, in relation to AD. In the present study, the Crocus sativus styles extract (CSE) and its constituents and other endemic Crocus species have been used to evaluate: (a) the antioxidant properties and effect on Aβ-aggregation both in vitro and in various cell culture systems (SHSY5Y, HEK293, CHOAPP770) and (b) learning and memory, brain oxidative status and acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE) of adult and aged, male Balb-c mice, after CSE intraperitoneal (7-days) administration (30 & 60 mg/kg body weight) (n= 9/group). Methodology: The in vitro antioxidant properties of the tested phytochemicals were determined by measuring the ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and Trolox-equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), while its effects on Aß-aggregation and fibrillogenesis were studied by SDS-PAGE, thioflavine T (ThT)-based fluorescence assay and DNA-shift binding assay. The effects of plant extracts on the regulation of APP processing in stably transfected CHO cells (CHOAPP770) was examined by Immunoprecipitation (IP)/Western blot. Measurements of cell viability and scavenging of ROS production after co-treatment with Η2Ο2 and various concentrations of plant extracts were performed by 3,(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT), 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein (DCF) assays and determination of caspase-3 activity. Evaluation of rodent learning and memory was done by a double trial, step-through test. Mice were sacrificed on day 7 and the effects on the oxidant status and AChE of whole brain homogenates was studied by determination of FRAP, ascorbic acid concentration (colorimetric), malondialdehyde and glutathione levels (fluorometric) and by the Ellman’s reagent. Caspase-3 activity (colorimetric) was also determined. Results: In our in vitro study, the water:methanol (50:50, v/v) extracts of Crocus species were shown to possess good antioxidant properties, higher than those of tomatoes and carrots and inhibit Aß fibrillogenesis in a concentration and time-dependent manner. The main carotenoid constituent, transcrocin- 4 (TC4), the di-gentibiosyl ester of crocetin, inhibited Aß fibrillogenesis at lower concentrations than dimethylcrocetin (DMCRT, a synthetic analogue of crocetin, lacking its sugar components), revealing that the action of the carotenoid is enhanced by the presence of the sugars. In the cell culture system, results showed that CSE and safranal treatment significantly enhanced both the release of amyloidogenic/and non-amyloidogenic soluble forms of sAPPα and sAPPβ into the conditioned media of CHOAPP770 cells. Τrans-crocin-4 resulted in an increase in sAPPβ, indicating the possible implication of sugan units in the process of amyloidogenesis. No difference was observed in full-length APP indicating that the increase of sAPPα/β in the media may be related to a shift in the balance of APP metabolism towards the α- or β-secretase pathway, rather than due to an increase in the expression levels of cellular APP. In addition, immunochemical labelling of Aβ revealed a trend towards p3 production in the cell culture media treated with the tested compounds. Plant extracts had no effect on production of higher molecular mass Aβ species. The increase in Aβ dimmers observed in the presence of C. sativus constituents, in contrast to the crude Crocus styles extracts, was ascribed to the implication of carotenoids in the amyloidogenic process, resulting in the formation and stability of dimmers. Hence, any attenuation of Aβ fibrillogenesis that may have been observed was not because of an overall inhibition of Aβ production. Treatment of cells with H2O2 caused the loss of cell viability, which was associated with the elevation of ROS level and the activation of caspase-3. These phenotypes induced by H2O2, were totally reversed by the tested phytochemicals in the SH-SY5Y cell line, with C. sativus being the most effective. Its carotenoid constituents were equally effective, with CRT≥safranal, even at higher H2O2 concentrations. In HEK293 cell line, co-treatment of the cells with varying concentrations of H2O2, along with CRT and safranal, resulted in reduced H2O2–induced cytotoxicity and ROS production, in contrast to the crude extract of C. sativus, which was less effective. Based on these observations, it seems that in both cell lines tested, the carotenoid constituents of C. sativus reduced the H2O2-induced oxidative damage, probably by reducing oxidative stress and ROS production. In contrast, only moderate effects were observed in stably transfected CHO cells, where co-treatment of the cells with H2O2 and the tested phytochemicals resulted in additional cytotoxicity. However, incubation of this cell line with C. sativus resulted in an increase in GSH levels, followed by a decrease in the MDA values, with C. boryi & C. niveus being equally effective and more effective than CRT and safranal. Results in mice, showed that only the CSE (60 mg/kg)-treated adult and aged mice exhibited a significant improvement in learning and memory. CSE administration resulted also in reduced lipid peroxidation products, in higher total brain antioxidant activity and reduced caspase-3 activity of both adult and aged mice. Furthermore, AChE activity was significantly decreased in CSE-treated adult mice; while no alterations were observed in CSE-treated aged mice. Interestingly, analysis of the in vitro potency of pure crocin constituents for AChE inhibition revealed a dose-dependent inhibitory profile, in the order of CRT≥Safranal>DMCRT, which mimicked that of galanthamine. This suggests that these compounds bind to different loci of the aromatic gorge of AChE, which might be at (or satisfactory close to) the subsites of the aromatic gorge, which seems to play an important role in accelerating Aβ plaque deposition. Conclusions: The lack of an effective treatment against AD, along with our inability to alter the genetic pool, makes the use of plant extracts with potent multi-targets and neuroprotective actions, as ideal candidates against the underlying mechanisms that characterize neurodegenerative diseases, like oxidative stress, protein misfolding, behavioral/cognitive alterations etc. Our finding also point towards such direction by indicating the possible use of C. sativus styles constituents for inhibition of aggregation and deposition of Aβ in the human brain. They also showed, for the first time, that the significant cognitive enhancement observed after CSE administration in adult & aged mice is closely related to higher brain antioxidant properties and inhibition of AChE (in the case of adult mice). However, no alterations were observed in the brain AChE levels of aged mice stressing the importance of healthy diet and early nutritional intervention on brain function from adulthood to senescence, as it may prove to be a valuable asset in “quenching the fires” of oxidative stress in aging and perhaps in neurodegenerative diseases. The fact though that saffron, as a spice, is part of our nutrition provides additional value to our experimental results, which could be of immediate use. The identification of crocins as one of the most effective contained phytochemicals could, in the long term, be used as new therapeutic means against AD. However, additional studies are required in order to dealinate further the effectiveness of the current plant extract as a potent “anti-amyloidogenic drug.