O trabalho apresenta uma aplicação da ferramenta metodológica conhecida como FMEA (Failure Mode Effect Analysis) ao processo de identificação de aspectos e impactos ambientais. Tal processo é parte importante na implantação e na manutenção de Sistemas de Gestão Ambiental (SGA), baseados na norma NBR ISO 14001. Além disso, pode contribuir, de forma complementar, para a avaliação e aperfeiçoamento da segurança nuclear da instalação analisada. Como objeto de estudo elegeu-se o Centro de Combustíveis Nucleares (CCN) do IPEN/CNEN-SP, localizado junto ao Campus da Universidade de São Paulo-Brasil, destinado à realização de pesquisas científicas e à produção de elementos combustíveis para o Reator IEA-R1. A partir de um levantamento sistemático de dados, obtidos por meio de entrevistas, documentos e registros operacionais foi possível identificar os processos, suas interações e atividades, cuja análise permitiu definir os diversos modos de falhas potenciais, as respectivas causas e conseqüências para o meio ambiente. Como resultado da avaliação criteriosa dos modos causas foi possível identificar e classificar os principais impactos ambientais potenciais, que constitui uma etapa essencial para a implantação e manutenção de um Sistema de Gestão Ambiental para a instalação em estudo. Os resultados obtidos permitiram demonstrar a validade da aplicação da técnica FMEA aos processos de instalações nucleares, identificando aspectos e impactos ambientais, cujos controles são essenciais para a obtenção da conformidade com os requisitos ambientais do Sistema de Gestão Integrada do IPEN (SGI). Contribuíram também para fornecer uma ferramenta gerencial poderosa para a solução de questões relacionadas ao processo de atendimento de exigências legais aplicáveis no âmbito da Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear (CNEN) e do Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente (IBAMA). / This work presents an application of Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) to the process of identification of environmental aspects and impacts as a part of implementation and maintenance of an Environmental Management System (EMS) in accordance with the NBR ISO 14001 standard. Also, it can contribute, as a complement, to the evaluation and improvement of safety of the installation focused. The study was applied to the Nuclear Fuel Center (CCN) of Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN), situated at the Campus of University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. The CCN facility has the objective of promoting scientific research and of producing nuclear fuel elements for the IEA-R1 Research Reactor. To identify the environmental aspects of the facility activities, products, and services, a systematic data collection was carried out by means of personal interviews, documents, reports and operation data records consulting. Furthermore, the processes and their interactions, failure modes, besides their causes and effects to the environment, were identified. As a result of a careful evaluation of these causes it was possible to identify and to classify the major potential environmental impacts, in order to set up and put in practice an Environmental Management System for the installation under study. The results have demonstrated the validity of the FMEA application to nuclear facility processes, identifying environmental aspects and impacts, whose controls are critical to achieve compliance with the environmental requirements of the Integrated Management System of IPEN. It was demonstrated that the methodology used in this work is a powerful management tool for resolving issues related to the conformity with applicable regulatory and legal requirements of the Brazilian Nuclear Energy Commission (CNEN) and the Brazilian Institute of Environment (IBAMA).

O Estudo Prévio de Impacto Ambiental e o Relatório de Impacto Ambiental no Estado de São Paulo são exigências legais para a implantação de qualquer empreendimento ou atividade potencialmente poluidora ou degradadora do meio ambiente. Ambos objetivam prevenir danos ambientais quando da análise sistemática das consequências da implantação de um projeto com significativo potencial de degradação ambiental. Para a viabilidade dos projetos, há que se fazer um acurado Estudo Prévio de Impacto Ambiental , por conta do empreendedor, e apresentá-lo à Companhia Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo - CETESB, agência vinculada à Secretaria do Meio Ambiente do Estado de São Paulo, para análise, emissão dos pareceres técnicos e das licenças ambientais. Nos últimos trinta anos, acompanhamos a construção, evolução e desenvolvimento normativo desse instrumento. Esta dissertação, além de constituir um exercício de análise desse instrumento da Política Nacional do Meio Ambiente, contribui para demonstrar como ele vem sendo tratado pelo governo do Estado de São Paulo e propõe uma análise histórica da importância do Estudo de Impactos Ambientais (EIA) e de seu respectivo relatório (RIMA) no controle e evitação de danos ambientais no Estado de São Paulo. Estamos diante de um cenário cada vez mais degradante em relação à conservação ambiental. Diante desse contexto, propusemos questionamentos acerca da influência do Estudo de Impacto Ambiental no processo de tomada de decisão no Licenciamento Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo e como a aplicação desse instrumento vem sendo flexibilizada e, atualmente, até mesmo correndo sérios riscos de extinção. O levantamento bibliográfico alicerçou o entendimento de que, quando falamos em Estudos de Impactos Ambientais, estamos diretamente nos remetendo à constitucionalização do direito fundamental a um meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado. Trata-se de regras impositivas a serem observadas, o que quer dizer que, em um Estado Democrático de Direito, há que se seguir um padrão de justiça ambiental, orientado pela sua estrutura principiológica subjacente. O meio ambiente não admite o agir tardio e é por esse motivo que o Estudo de Impactos Ambientais se apresenta como um instrumento de importância imensurável, já que é através dele que os princípios da precaução e da prevenção se materializam. A pesquisa documental levantou os Estudos de Impactos Ambientais desenvolvidos no Estado de São Paulo entre os anos 1987 e 2015, abarcando um total de 29 anos desde a implantação do processo pelo governo estadual, assim como os pareceres técnicos de indeferimento do pedido de licença de seis processos escolhidos aleatoriamente. / The Environmental Impact Assessment and the Environmental Impact Report in the State of São Paulo are legal requirements for the implementation of any undertaking or activity potentially polluting or degrading the environment. Both aim at preventing environmental damage when systematically analyzing the consequences of implementing a project with significant potential for environmental degradation. For the feasibility of the projects, it is necessary to make an accurate Environmental Impact Assessment, on behalf of the entrepreneur, and present it to the Environmental Company of the State of São Paulo - CETESB, an agency linked to the Secretariat of the Environment of the State of São Paulo, for analysis, issuance of technical opinions and environmental licenses. In the last thirty years, we have followed the construction and normative development of this instrument. This dissertation, besides constituting an exercise in the analysis of this instrument of the National Environmental Policy, contributes to demonstrate how it has been treated by the government of the State of São Paulo and proposes a historical analysis of the importance of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and of its respective report (RIMA) in the control and avoidance of environmental damages in the State of São Paulo. We are facing an increasingly degrading scenario in relation to environmental conservation. In view of this context, we have proposed questions about the influence of the Environmental Impact Assessment on the decision-making process in the Environmental Licensing of the State of São Paulo and how the application of this instrument has been relaxed and is currently even running serious extinction risks. The bibliographic survey supported the understanding that, when we speak of Environmental Impact Assessment, we are directly referring to the constitutionalization of the fundamental right to an ecologically balanced environment. These are rules to be observed, which means that, in a democratic state under de rules of law, it is necessary to follow a pattern of environmental justice, guided by its underlying principiological structure. The environment does not admit of late action and it is for this reason that the Environmental Impact Assessment presents itself as an instrument of immeasurable importance, since it is through this that the principles of precaution and prevention materialize. The documentary research surveyed the Environmental Impact Assessment developed in the State of São Paulo between 1987 and 2015, comprehending a total of 29 years since the implementation of the process by the state government, as well as the technical opinions rejecting the license application of six randomly chosen processes.

O zoneamento ambiental, um dos instrumentos da lei da Política Nacional do Meio Ambiente (Lei 6.938/81), foi regulamentado pelo Decreto nº 4.297/02, com a denominação de zoneamento ecológico-econômico e tem se evidenciado como uma ferramenta importante de gestão e planejamento ambientais, dotada de aptidão para realizar caracterização e diagnóstico ambientais de determinado espaço, de acordo com a sua capacidade de suporte. Com essa característica, pode ser utilizado com eficiência no licenciamento ambiental de atividades potencialmente degradadoras do meio ambiente, dotando o órgão licenciador de subsídios importantes para decidir sobre a viabilidade ambiental de um determinado empreendimento ou atividade. A caracterização e diagnóstico ambientais, produtos do zoneamento ecológico-econômico, também darão maior agilidade e dinamismo ao estudo de impacto ambiental, na medida em que permitem a identificação da melhor alternativa locacional do empreendimento, reduzindo a necessidade de adoção de medidas mitigadoras. O Decreto 4.297/02, em consonância com os dispositivos constitucionais e princípios fundamentais de proteção ao meio ambiente, bem como com as finalidades objetivadas pela lei da política nacional do meio ambiente, prevê que zoneamento ecológico-econômico é um instrumento de produção obrigatória pelo poder público, nas hipóteses por ele mencionadas. Contudo, pode haver questionamentos quanto à forma em que a obrigatoriedade foi veiculada (por meio de decreto) e se ele seria obrigatório somente nos casos em que já tivesse sido executado, pois, aparentemente, o decreto teria feito uma ressalva nesse sentido. Desta maneira, a discussão a respeito do dever de sua elaboração imediata se mostra relevante para que a implementação deste importante instrumento possa ser exigida do Poder Público. / The environmental zoning, one of the instruments of the Environment National Policy Law (Law 6.938/81), was regulated by the decree nº 4.297/02, with the denomination of economic ecologic zoning and is being evidenced as an important tool of environmental administration and management, with aptitude to execute environmental characterization and diagnosis of a determined site, considering it\'s capacity of support. With this characteristic, it can be used with efficiency in the environmental licensing of potentially degradative activities to the environment, supporting the licensing agency with important environmental criteria to decide about the environmental feasibility of a determined enterprise or activity. The environmental characterization and diagnosis, products of the economic ecologic zoning, also gives a greater agility and dynamism to the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), in a way that it allows an identification of the best locational alternative to the enterprise reducing the need of mitigation measurements. The decree 4.297/2002, in consonance with the constitutionals dispositions and fundamentals principles of environmental protection, and with a finalities objectifieds by the environmental national policy, predicts that the economic ecological zoning is an instrument imposed to be produced by the Public Authority, in the hypothesis mentioned. However, there can be questioning about the form of the imposition was placed (by this decree) and whether it would be imposed just in the cases that was already been executed, because, apparently, the decree would have made a safeguard in this sense. In this way, the discussion about its immediate elaboration shows relevant to the implementation of this important instrument can be required by the Public Authority.

Background: The Swedish driving licence test is a criterion-referenced test resulting in a pass or fail. It currently consists of two parts - a theory test with 65 multiple-choice items and a practical driving test where at least 25 minutes are spent driving in traffic. It is a high-stakes test in the sense that the results are used to determine whether the test-taker should be allowed to drive a car without supervision. As the only other requirements for obtaining a licence is a few hours of hazard education (and a short introduction if you intend to drive with a lay instructor) it is important that the test result, in terms of pass or fail, is reliable and valid. If this is not the case it could have detrimental effects on traffic safety. Examining all relevant aspects is beyond the scope of this licentiate thesis so I have focused on reliability. Methods Reliability for both the theoretical and practical test results was examined. As these are very different types of tests the types of reliability examined also differed. In order to examine inter-rater reliability of the driving test 83 examiners were accompanied by one of five selected supervising examiners for a day of tests. All in all 535 tests were conducted with two examiners assessing the same performance. At the end of the day the examiners compared notes and tried to determine the reason for any inconsistencies. Both examiners and students also filled in questionnaires with questions about background and preparation. As for studying decision consistency and decision accuracy of the theory test, three test versions (a total of around 12,000 tests) were examined with the help of methods devised by Subkoviak (Subkoviak, 1976, 1988) and Hanson & Brennan (Brennan, 2004; Hanson & Brennan, 1990). Results The results from two research studies concerning reliability were presented. Study I focused on inter-rater reliability in the driving test and in 93 per cent of cases the examiners made the same assessment. For the tests where their opinions differed there was no correlation to any of the background variables or other variables examined except for three, which had logical explanations and did not constitute a problem. Although there were cases where the differences were due to different stances on matters of interpretation the most common suggested cause was the placement in the car (back seat vs. front seat). Although the supervising examiners gave both praise and criticism as to how the test was carried out the study does not answer the question whether the tests were equal in terms of composition and difficulty. In Study II the focus was on decision consistency and decision accuracy in the theory test. Three versions of the theory tests were examined and, on the whole, found to be fairly similar in terms of item difficulty and score distribution, but the mean was so close to the cut-score (i.e. the score required to pass) that the pass rate differed somewhat between versions. Agreement coefficients were around .80 for all test versions (between .79 and .82 depending on method). Classification accuracy indicated an .87 probability of a correct classification. Conclusion It is important to examine the reliability and validity of the driving licence test since a misclassification can have serious consequences in terms of traffic safety. In the studies included here the rate of agreement between examiners is deemed as satisfactory. It would be preferable if the classification consistency and classification accuracy, as estimated by the methods used, were higher for the theory test, given its importance. While reliability in terms of agreement between raters/examiners or consistency and accuracy of classification are routinely examined in other contexts, such as large-scale educational testing, this is not often done for the driving licence tests. At the same time, the methods used here can be transferred to contexts where such properties are generally not examined. Collecting information about test-takers and examiners, like in Study I, can provide evidence concerning possible bias. Examining to what extent decisions are consistent is one important aspect of collecting evidence that shows that test results can be used to draw conclusions about driver competence. Still, regardless of outcome, validation is a process that never ends. There is always reason to examine various aspects and make further improvements. There are also many other relevant aspects to examine. A prerequisite for the validity of the score interpretation of a criterion-referenced test like this one is that the cut-score is appropriate and the content relevant. This should therefore be the subject of further research as the validation process continues.

LED(Light Emitting Diode，發光二極體)的應用已由最早的數字顯示器和指示器發展出一些新的應用，與生活息息相關，四處可見，包括出口指示燈、裝飾燈、交通號誌、舞台燈、室外照明和投射燈等。LED提供的好處包括體積小、使用壽命長、低熱量輸出、節約能源和耐用性，它也擁有設計的靈活性，譬如由將小單體封裝成不同的形狀、顏色、大小及亮度可以達到顯色及調光的各種不同變化。但是LED技術發展限制使得它在整體光源輸出、演色性及可靠性仍不如規格宣稱可以達到的境界，因此在某些應用上還不普及，尤以取代傳統照明的應用市場目前較難達成。然而其餘LED在包括零售展示，彩色燈光，需要較暗光線的狹小空間照明，外部照明和應用一體化的光源的建築、娛樂與劇場照明等應用領域已經漸漸形成市場。由於台灣基於半導體產業的興盛，讓LED產業也隨之蓬勃發展起舞。 Philips公司進入LED照明產業後，積極地展開規劃佈署，主以併購的方式，於2005至2009年共併購了9間LED照明相關公司。從上游研發與製造LED晶片與元件公司Lumileds，到中游LED照明控制廠商Color Kinetics、TIR system、Bodine與Dynalite，以及下游LED燈具製造商PLI、Genlyte與Selecon，將LED照明產業鏈上的的關鍵公司納入旗下，對本身LED照明產品線進行垂直整合以及組織重整，Philips公司藉此以大規模的併購動作向全球宣告自身於LED照明產業的龍頭地位。 本研究針對LED照明產業作一系列的探討與分析，先從目前LED照明發展概況、主要廠商LED照明產品技術結構分析開始作初步探討，最後以Philips公司為個案探討該公司在LED照明的商業模式，如在LED照明產業的組織設計、投資、併購、合資、研發、授權與專利佈局…等。透過上述分析資料及結果，本研究歸納出Philips公司於LED照明產業的經營模式與發展策略，並對應到台灣企業目前的發展狀況。對台灣企業發展LED照明而言，當務之急除致力技術研發，累積自身專利之保護傘，以及對國外廠商的大規模授權動作亦必須要進行充分的研究與了解外，仍需借鏡Philips公司經營LED照明產業的方法與經驗，重新規劃自身的商業模式與競爭策略，避免重蹈過往台灣廠商在LED晶粒與封裝段遭遇的困境，逃脫不了向國外大廠取得授權或是被告的命運。 / The application of LED (Light Emitting Diode) evolved from digital display and indicators to more utility devices close to daily life, such as indicator lamps, decorative lamps, traffic lights, stage lights, outdoor lights, and projection lights. The limit of current technology restricts LED from so-claimed full performance concerning global illumination, color rendering, and reliability so that it is less available in certain applications, especially in the market of traditional lightings. However, LED becomes popular in retail display, color lighting, illumination of a small space, exterior lighting, illumination of integrated building, entertainment lighting and stage lighting. In addition, the prosperity of Taiwan semi-conductor industry encourages the development of LED industry in Taiwan. The LED companies have developed into a complete industry chain in Taiwan and will play an important role in the global LED industry. Philips aggressively merged 9 LED companies between 2005 and 2009. These companies ranges from upstream to downstream of the LED industry chain, including LED chips manufacturer Lumileds, LED controller companies Color Kinetics, TIR System, Bodine, Dynalite, and LED module and system manufacturer PLI, Genlyte, Selecon. The strategy of Philips is to complete its LED product line through vertical merger and reorganization of these important LED companies, proclaiming its leading position in global LED industry. This thesis begins with an introduction about the latest development of LED lighting and the technology analysis on LED products of the main companies. Further, the thesis will take Philips as the case study to elaborate its business model in LED lighting, such as organization, investment, merger and acquisitions, joint venture, R&D, licensing and patent strategy. Through the analysis on Philips’ business model and strategy in LED industry, the research will propose some suggestions for Taiwan LED companies. Taiwan LED companies should increase their own R&D energy, strengthen their intellectual property and keep up with the updated status of international licensing events. They should also take Philips as an example to examine their own business strategy in case that they may be trapped between high Royalties or lawsuits to international enterprises, a dilemma which Taiwan LED die and package companies encountered.

<p>Topic:When an MNC seeks to enter a foreign country, it must choose the most appropriate entry mode for that specific market, such as exporting, licensing, a turnkey project, franchising, joint ventures or wholly-owned subsidiaries. There are many factors which affect the choice of entry modes. Influential factors contributing to the entry mode decision can have different degrees of impact for each particular country. As a consequence, an MNC has to use different entry modes in order to adapt to the specific situations it faces in its international expansion strategy.</p><p>Research Problem: Our research problem is to find the answer to two specific research questions while investigating in a particular MNC: Starbucks. The relevant questions are: (1.) What factors affected Starbucks’ entry mode decisions? (2.) Which entry mode strategies did Starbucks use foreign markets and why?</p><p>Method: We collected data through a qualitative method. We regarded that a qualitative research method would provide us the necessary data to understand entry mode decisions. We collected data through literature, books, journals, and Internet resources. We have decided to focus our qualitative research on exploring Starbucks’ entry mode decision in some specific markets. In particular, we have concentrated on Spain, New Zealand and the United Kingdom.</p><p>Conclusions: The choice of entry mode is a critical decision made by MNCs. The choice is influenced by several factors; we have divided these into internal and external factors. We have found both groups are important in the decisions made by Starbucks. However, the degree of influence is different in each case. Moreover, it is possible that some influential factors in the choice of entry mode can differ by case. Finally, we have found external factors have been critical in affecting Starbucks’ choice of entry modes. Starbucks has sought to adapt to those external factors and local needs and requirements by using different entry modes.</p>

The purpose of this thesis is to describe and analyse the significance of economic thinking and arguments in the treatment of licence agreements in EC competition law. A central question is to what degree the concept of competition in EC law reflects an economically realistic approach to competition. The study also investigates to what degree the economic functioning of intellectual property is considered in competition regulation and how much the economic functioning of the licence agreement is considered. The investigation mainly consists of a comparative analysis of EC competition law and American antitrust law concerning the economic arguments and their importance. The treatment of territorial restrictions, field of use restrictions, quantity clauses, tie-outs, tie-ins, grant back, no-challenge clauses and price restrictions are of special interest here. This study shows that an economically realistic view of competition has influenced current EC competition law, especially in the Technology Transfer Block Exemption Regulation (TTBER). Exceptions from this development in the EC law are mainly due to the goal of integration of the common market. Territorial restrictions are strictly regulated in the TTBER even when the parties’ market shares are below the market thresholds defined in the regulation. The function of intellectual property rights are not much considered in EC competition law but there are general remarks about the economic functioning of patents in the Guidelines for the TTBER. However, it is difficult to find evidence for economic reasoning about patents in the formation of concrete rules. On the contrary, patents are weakened by the widened concept of exhaustion presented in the Guidelines. The economic functioning of the licence agreement is considered in the rules of TTBER and the economic arguments for clauses which create incentives for making investments or give the possibility of control are acknowledged. However, the free riding argument has a weak position when applied to territorial restrictions, which are more formalistically regulated. The EC competition law has become more similar to American antitrust law. The decisive difference consists in the judicial treatment of territorial restrictions, where the goal of integration is still of central importance in EC law.

This thesis discusses the evolution of the role of the pharmacist in U.S. health care delivery from its early origins to modern day practice. Public policy, education and licensing requirements, and technological advances have substantially shaped the role of the pharmacist and what health care services they provide. Where pharmacists once provided direct patient care when formal modes of pharmacist professionalization did not exist, post-WWII mass production of pharmaceuticals confined pharmacists to dispensing and distribution duties that did not fully utilize their drug knowledge. Consequently, pharmacy educators and leaders have pushed pharmacy practice into an era of “pharmaceutical care,” emphasizing direct patient care activities and the employment of pharmacists’ drug expertise. Pharmacists today have moved back into clinical roles, participating in patient care activities alongside other health care professionals—sometimes even providing primary care services. Due to the U.S.’s growing dependence of prescription drugs and the American public’s continuous demands for high quality care, greater access to health care services, and containment of health care costs, pharmacists will likely acquire greater responsibilities in direct patient care.

軟體市場的競爭是日益激烈，許多軟體廠為提昇其自我的生存能力，大部分軟體廠商會將其公司資源投注於產品的研發及通路發展而忽略如何運用軟體銷售授權模式的改變來提昇其競爭能力。目前市場的軟體授權模式除了傳統套裝軟體一次買斷式模式外，也有所謂的訂閱、依使用量、或依功能模組等單位向使用者索取費用等非一次買斷式的軟體銷售模式。 本研究以企業用戶為探討對象，經過國內外文獻資料與相關市場調查的蒐集，並整理目前軟體產業中成功代表個案，包含：微軟、Salesforces.com、Apple iTunes 線上音樂以及Google，彙整其競爭優勢、策略與挑戰，藉此進一步探討不同軟體銷售模式發展下行銷通路的變化、各類應用軟體適用的銷售模式分析、以及多元軟體銷售機制對軟體廠商與消費者的影響。 針對上述議題，本研究以提升顧客價值為觀點，提出以下六點結論，以期作為軟體廠商擬定公司行銷策略之參考與依據，與及企業用戶訂定軟體採購的方針。這六點結論如下所敘：(1)不同銷售模式有著不同的銷售通路，因此採用對的銷售模式及銷售通路，將有助於軟體廠商進入新的市場；(2)整體擁有成本低、功能變動小、諮商維護需求低，且對企業效益不高的軟體產品，適用於一次買斷軟體銷售模式；(3) 當產品使用人數少，但對產品功能的維護、更新需求高時，建議企業採取依使用人次配合固定租金無限使用模式；(4)當對該軟體產品之使用效益評估尚不明確時，建議企業可先採取依使用量計價的模式；(5)建議既有軟體廠商可善用多元銷售模式與傳統買斷式、大量授權銷售模式的整合，積極與顧客建立長期關係；(6)軟體廠商應不斷精益求精，提供更好的服務品質。 / Today's software vendors must consider a wide assortment of licensing models to maintain the competitive edge on the marketplace instead of solely resource investment on either R&D or sales channel. Traditionally perpetual licensing selling model characterized by large, upfront costs is still the major software selling model, however, several non-perpetual licensing models (i.e. term licensing) like subscription and utility pricing, defined as pay-as-you-go pricing based on a fixed or variable metric are gaining attention. To better understand different licensing selling model approach toward the enterprise customers, and the their impacts on channel ecosystem, selling advantage and the connection between enterprise buyers and software vendors, the study has elaborated recent marketing researches and celebrity cases in the market. The cases we went through include Microsoft, Salesforce.com, Apple and Google. Base on the core principle of “customer value”, the study has identified 6 takeaways that can be used by both software vendors and enterprise customers for marketing strategy planning and procurement tactics implementation. Below are the 6 takeaways. 1.Different licensing models come with different selling channels; an appropriate licensing model adoption will effectively help software vendors to penetrate to new market. 2.The perpetual licensing model is more suitable to the software applications whose characteristics are low TCO, infrequent function update and few maintenance effort 3.Subscription model is a choice for the software applications that have frequent function updates, high maintenance effort but use by few people daily 4.Pay-as-you-go pricing model for usage will benefit to enterprise customers when the ROI of software application they are using is unclear 5.Existing market players of software application will be paid back from long-term customer relation by aggressively deploying multiple licensing models (perpetual and term licensing) together 6.Face competitive challenge of revenue stream and future growth, Software vendors not only should continuously work on better-for-customer products and services for enterprise customers, a better-for-customer pricing model development are a crucial pivot point as well.

近年來，台灣高科技廠商開始投注大量的心血在於專利申請上，由公告的美國專利數目，台灣專利權人2005年在美獲取專利數已位居美國以外國家的第三位，在這樣的數據下，應該值得驕傲，然若從訴訟案例來看，台灣廠商卻仍明顯處於被指控專利侵權的窘境，在光電產業、光儲存產業、半導體產業、IC設計業等，有相當多的案例說明台灣廠商雖然在專利的數量上已達一定的成效，但營運上卻因為專利議題而障礙重重。 許多專利聯盟案例的成功，如MPEG LA與DVD 6C都說明了以專利為基礎所產生標準後能帶來的龐大商業利益。使得標準之爭，成為國際級大集團的必爭之地。反觀台灣或是中國，近年來都有許多與標準相關的聯盟產生，但都未能為主流產品所遵循、參與。 本文藉由MPEG-2 的案例，對於技術、專利、產品、產業的相互關係作一實證的探討，並以國際級跨國公司的智權管理來分析其營運模鏈式。發現推動標準的領導廠商，在標準制訂過程中，積極地參與標準組織、轉化研發成果為專利；在專利的佈局上，也善用專利申請的技巧在各國廣佈專利；積極推廣標準成為主流後，再組成專利聯盟、訂立授權機制。 國內廠商，若要制訂標準、組成專利聯盟，應建立許多研發的配套機制，例如研發過程中，標準、產品與專利的結、產業上中下游價值鏈的安排、研發聯盟的組成等。 / Hi-tech companies in Taiwan have begun to focus their resources on patent prosecution and the added-value thereafter in recent years. According to the statistics of USPTO, Taiwan ranks 3th on the total patent granted to a foreign origin. This is clearly an achievement to be proud of. However, Taiwan companies are still subject to many infringement challenges, be they in the field of optoelectronics, optical storage, semi-conductor or IC design. Clearly the growing patent ownership has not quite resolved the intellectual property issues these companies must overcome. The success of patent pools can bring profit to companies. In cases of MPEG LA and DVD 6C, they makes standard war a critical issue to international companies. On the contrary in Taiwan and China, many alliances aiming to promote standard fail to become standard finally. The case of MPEG-2 is analyzed in the aspects of technology, patent, product, industry and also their interactions. In addition, the IP management of the business model is also discussed. We found the leading company of industrial standard are aggressively participating the standard organization and applying patents. In patent application, there were skillfully in filing patents in different countries. After the technology become dominant standards, they start to form patent pool and build the license mechanism. Domestic companies should establish the infrastructure of R&D before setting standard and forming patent pool. For example, the connections of standard, product development, patent application, industrial value chain and R&D alliance should be planed and established during R&D process.