O palmiteiro (Euterpe edulis Mart.) é uma espécie nativa da Mata Atlântica cujas populações naturais encontram-se degradadas pelo extrativismo. Considerando a escassez de informações relativas às conseqüências genéticas da exploração de palmito, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o impacto do processo de exploração sobre os níveis de diversidade, estrutura genética e tamanho efetivo de populações da espécie. Também foram estudados aspectos genéticos do recrutamento de plantas e o sistema reprodutivo da espécie. O estudo foi realizado em duas localidades do Estado de Santa Catarina, nos municípios de São Pedro de Alcântara e Ibirama. Em cada localidade foram escolhidas duas áreas de ocorrência natural de E. edulis, uma sem influência antrópica e outra que sofreu exploração de palmito, totalizando quatro populações. Os sistemas de exploração foram: (i) extrativismo - onde todos os indivíduos acima de 2 m de altura são cortados, incluindo plantas reprodutivas; and (ii) manejo - onde somente indivíduos acima de 9 cm de DAP são cortados, com a manutenção de 50 plantas reprodutivas por hectare. Em cada população foram examinadas plântulas, jovens e adultos, usando oito locos microssatélites e dez locos alozímicos. Os resultados revelaram que a espécie se reproduz por alogamia ( m tˆ = 0,996 para microssatélites e m tˆ = 1,000 para isoenzimas), porém a ocorrência de cruzamentos entre indivíduos aparentados (até 5%) e cruzamentos biparentais (10%) indica a ocorrência de cruzamentos não aleatórios. Em locos alozímicos, observaram-se as seguintes amplitudes de variação das estimativas de diversidade entre as categorias: Aˆ : 3,05 a 3,15; e Hˆ : 0,416 a 0,431; o Hˆ : 0,378 a 0,403. Em locos microssatélites, a variação observada foi a seguinte: Aˆ : 14,12 a 14,72; e Hˆ : 0,781 a 0,785; o Hˆ : 0,678 a 0,709. Nas populações não exploradas, houve um aumento na freqüência de heterozigotos na direção do estádio adulto, o que sugere a ação da seleção favorecendo o aumento de heterozigotos. Valores altos e significativos do índice de fixação ( fˆ ) foram observados, especialmente nos marcadores microssatélites, indicando desvios do equilíbrio de Hardy-Weinberg. De modo geral, ambos os marcadores revelaram um aumento dos valores de fˆ nas populações exploradas, especialmente entre as plântulas. As estimativas ST Gˆ e ST Rˆ não revelaram alterações na estrutura genética das populações exploradas e demostraram uma divergência genética inferior a 5% na maioria das comparações aos pares, em ambos os marcadores. O tamanho efetivo ( e Nˆ ) dos indivíduos adultos por hectare foi superior a 110 nas populações não pertubadas, enquanto nas populações exploradas, o tamanho efetivo por hectare foi reduzido para 45, sob manejo, e 14, sob extrativismo. Porém, o tamanho efetivo total das populações exploradas ainda é elevado, o que explica a manutenção dos altos níveis de diversidade nessas populações. Finalmente, a informação genética conjunta desses marcadores demonstrou que os efeitos da exploração foram pouco pronunciados até o momento em relação aos níveis de diversidade e estrutura genética das populações de E. edulis. Entretanto, a redução da população de cruzamentos resultou em alterações no comportamento reprodutivo dos indivíduos, promovendo um aumento nos níveis de endogamia nas coortes mais jovens das populações exploradas. Contudo, os resultados obtidos neste estudo indicaram questões adicionais a serem estudadas. Em função do elevado nível de variabilidade dos locos microssatélites observado em E. edulis, recomenda-se aumentar o tamanho das amostras visando otimizar a informação genética proporcionada por esses marcadores. Além disso, novos estudos são necessários sobre os efeitos do manejo tecnificado, uma vez que os resultados obtidos podem ter sido influenciados por outros eventos de exploração ocorridos no passado e pelas populações existentes nas proximidades devido ao elevado fluxo gênico da espécie. / Heart-of-palm tree (Euterpe edulis Mart.; Arecaceae) is a native species of the Atlantic forest whose natural populations are degraded by extractivism. Regarding the relative scarcity of information on the genetic consequences of palm heart exploitation, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two exploitation systems - extractivism and management - on the levels of variability, genetic structure and effective size of Euterpe edulis Mart. populations. We also investigated genetic aspects of the plant recruitment and the reproductive system of the species. Four natural populations of E. edulis with different histories of disturbance were surveyed in the districts of São Pedro de Alcântara and Ibirama, Santa Catarina, Brazil. At both sites, we sampled an undisturbed and an exploited population. The exploitation systems were: (i) extractivism - where most individuals higher than 2 m are harvested, including reproductive plants; and (ii) management - where only individuals with more than 9 cm of DBH are harvested, with the maintainance of 50 reproductive plants per ha. Three categories of plants, from seedlings to adults, were examined using eight microsatellite loci and ten allozyme loci. Results demonstrated the preferentially allogamic behaviour of the species ( m tˆ = 0.996 for microsatellites and m tˆ = 1.000 for allozymes), but the occurrence of matings among related individuals (5%) and biparental matings (10%) indicated the existence of non-random matings in this species. For allozymic loci, the following diversity estimates were obtained among the categories: Aˆ : 3.05 to 3.15; e Hˆ : 0.416 to 0.431; o Hˆ : 0.378 to 0.403. For microsatellites, the estimates were as follows: Aˆ : 14.12 to 14.72; e Hˆ : 0.781 to 0.785; o Hˆ : 0.678 to 0.709. In undisturbed populations, there was an increase in heterozygote frequency towards the adult stages, suggesting the action of natural selection favouring such heterozygote increase. Highly significant values of fixation index ( fˆ ) were observed, mainly at microsatellite loci, indicating departures from Hardy-Weinberg expectation. Both markers displayed an increase of fˆ values in the exploited populations, especially for seedlings. The estimates of interpopulation genetic variation ( ST Gˆ ; ST Rˆ ) revealed that more than 95% of the molecular genetic variability of the species is distributed within populations, and there was no evidence of changes in genetic structure of the exploited populations. Effective size ( e Nˆ ) per hectare of the adult individuals was higher than 110 in the two undisturbed populations, while in the exploited populations the effective size per hectare was reduced to 45 under management, and 14 under extractivism. However, the total effective size of the exploited populations was still high, which explains the maintenance of high diversity levels in these populations. Finally, the genetic information from both markers displayed small pronounced effects of the exploitation process on variability and population genetic structure of E. edulis, with the exception of an increase in the inbreeding levels among seedlings and juveniles of the exploited populations. However, our results raised further questions for study. Because of the hypervariability of microssatellite loci used in this work, we would recommend an increase in the sample size (>100) in order to optimize the genetic information provided by these markers. Moreover, new investigations are necessary on the effects of management, since the results from this study could have been influenced by other exploitation events that have occurred in the past and by the existence, due to the high gene flow of the species, of surrounding undisturbed populations.

Le maintien de ressources génétiques suffisamment larges est nécessaire pour assurer la viabilité et le potentiel évolutif des populations naturelles. Cette thèse a le principal objectif de caractériser la diversité et la variabilité génétique chez le genre Virola (Myristicaceae) pour décrire les processus évolutifs qui en sont à l'origine. Premièrement,une étude de la régénération d'un échantillonnage exhaustif de V. michelii a été menée dans une parcelle du dispositif expérimental de Paracou ayant subi une exploitation forestière de faible intensité et comparée à une parcelle témoin. La diversité génétique mesurée à partir de marqueurs AFLP (Amplified Fragment-Length Polymorphism, N=229) en zones perturbées s'est révélée être plis grande qu'en zone non-perturbées. Puis, l'adaptation locale a été étudiée à travers ces mêmes individus et certains loci (AFLP) montrent une sélection divergente pour des environnements contrastés, indiquant un signe d'adaptation. Enfin, l'étude des niveaux de divergence génétique chez trois espèces de Virola du bouclier guyanais (V. michelii, V. surinamensis et V. kwatae) montrent que deux d'entre elles (V. surinamensis et V. kwatae) montrent de fortes similarités génétiques malgré leur distribution sur des environnements contrastés. des Flux de gènes intersécifiques ont été mis en évidence chez ces deux espèces-soeurs et l'hypothèse d'une spéciation écologique est avancée. Ce travail a permis d'aborder différents processus évolutifs à l'origine de la diversité génétique actuelle chez ces espèces forestières tropicales et peut fournir une contribution pour appréhender le devenir des populations. / Genetic diversity is an essential component of biodiversity. The maintenance of sufficient genetic resources is needed to ensure the adaptive potential and the viability of natural populations. In the current context of global changes, the study of adaptation in living organisms is a key task, particularly for tropical forest trees that are dominant components (in terms of biomass and as ecological drivers) of some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. The main objective of this thesis is to characterize genetic diversity and genetic variability to understand the evolutionary processes that act on them. This ecological-genetic study was carried out at the interspecific and intraspecific level in the Virola genus.If overall high levels of genetic diversity are a guarantee of prosperity for the future of the species, it seems essential to perform studies on the impact of environmental disturbance on genetic diversity. In the first section, the genetic consequences of regeneration dynamics were studied in an exhaustive sample of V. michelii in a low-intensity logging plot and in a control plot at the Paracou experimental site. A greater genetic diversity, measured from AFLP markers (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism, N = 229), was found in perturbed areas. Because studying genetic diversity within species may be useful for understanding species adaptation to environmental changes, in the second section. I studied local adaptation in a population of V. michelii on the Paracou experimental site. A genome scan approach with AFLPs (N = 229) was conducted on 77 adult individuals and 401 juveniles to identify genetic differences between populations associated to contrasting conditions for an array of environmental variables. Some loci (N = 2) were found to be subject to divergent selection, indicating adaptation to contrasting habitats.In the third section, the study of levels of genetic divergence in three Virola species of the Guiana Shield (V. michelii, V. surinamensis and V. kwatae) was investigated for nuclear and chloroplast molecular markers. V. surinamensis and V. kwatae showed strong genetic similarities despite their contrasting habitats preferences. Coalescent analyses have revealed, on one hand, a recent divergence between these two species suggesting an ecological speciation, and one the other hand that interspecific gene flow occurs between these sister-species.This work focuses on understanding evolutionary processes shaping genetic diversity and provides a useful contribution for biodiversity conservation programs.

Au cours des quarante dernières années, l’optimisation des méthodes sylvicoles et l’introduction de variétés améliorées ont permis d’accroître considérablement la productivité du pin maritime. Pour permettre à la filière bois de disposer d’une matière première de qualité sur ce matériel amélioré, un programme de recherches multidisciplinaire a été développé afin d’étudier le déterminisme génétique de la qualité du bois. Neuf facteurs de transcription potentiellement impliqués dans la xylogenèse et l’adaptation des arbres à leur milieu, ont tout d’abord été séquencés dans la population Aquitaine, et leurs patrons de diversité nucléotidique ont été étudiés. Ces patrons ont été comparés à l’attendu de modèles neutres d’évolution et s’en écartent par un niveau élevé de déséquilibre de liaison et l’excès de mutations en fréquences intermédiaires détectés pour trois de ces gènes (HDZ31, LIM2 et MYB1). Ces résultats suggèrent des changements de taille de population affectant l’ensemble du génome, et l’action de sélection balancée sur l’un d’entre eux (MYB1). Les géniteurs de la population d’amélioration Aquitaine ont ensuite été génotypés pour 384 marqueurs moléculaires et évalués pour la croissance et les propriétés chimiques du bois. Ces données moléculaires et phénotypiques ont permis de mettre en évidence des associations significatives entre la variation pour le diamètre du tronc ou la teneur en cellulose du bois et deux marqueurs situés respectivement dans un facteur de transcription HD-Zip (HDZ31) et dans un gène encodant une fascicline. La cohérence des résultats de génétique évolutive et de génétique d’association ouvre ainsi des perspectives encourageantes pour la compréhension de l’architecture génétique de la formation du bois chez cette espèce. Cependant, le faible nombre d’associations significatives pose de nombreux problèmes théoriques et méthodologiques qui sont discutés en vue d’améliorations pour de nouveaux designs expérimentaux. / During the last four decades, the optimization of silvicultural and tree breeding methods has contributed to improve growth and wood homogeneity of maritime pine. In order to provide the different actors of the forestry wood-chain with high quality raw material, the genetic determinism and chemical components of wood quality are being studied in the frame of a multidisciplinary research program. First, nine transcription factors putatively involved in wood formation have been sequenced in the Aquitaine population, and their nucleotide diversity pattern studied. Since these genes potentially play important roles in the adaptation of trees to their environment, their patterns have been compared to those expected under neutral evolution. Strong departures from neutrality were observed, with high levels of linkage disequilibrium and an excess of intermediate frequency variants for three of them (HDZ31, LIM2 and MYB1), which could be linked to population size changes that affected the whole genome, and to balancing selection effects at one of them (MYB1). Secondly, the genitors of the Aquitaine breeding population were genotyped for 384 markers and evaluated for growth and wood chemical properties. Significant associations were detected for two markers, one in a HD-Zip transcription factor (HDZ31) with growth, and the other in a gene coding for a fasciclin protein with cellulose content. The consistency of evolutionary and molecular genetics opens encouraging perspectives for understanding the genetic architecture of wood formation in this species. However, the low number of associations detected raises several theoretical and methodological issues which are discussed for the perspective of improving future experimental designs.

La diversité génétique intra-spécifique constitue le potentiel adaptatif des espèces et, à ce titre, elle est donc indispensable pour l'évolution de celles-ci. Chez les vertébrés, les gènes du complexe majeur d'histocompatibilité (CMH) sont une composante essentielle de quoi permet de faire face aux parasites en initiant une réponse immunitaire. La pression de sélection exercée par les parasites et la sélection sexuelle via le choix du partenaire devraient donc agir sur la diversité génétique du CMH. Cependant, la distinction empirique des pressions sélectives agissant sur la diversité génétique du CMH en milieu naturel nécessite de suivre un grand nombre individus tout au long de leur vie et d'effectuer leur génotypage. Le premier objectif de cette thèse a donc été développer et appliquer un protocole de génotypage chez la marmotte Alpine (Marmota marmota), sur quatre loci du CMH décrits précédemment. Ceci permet par la suite d'étudier, dans une population de marmottes Alpines vivant en milieu naturel, si les caractéristiques génétiques du CMH influencent (1) le choix de partenaire, (2) la présence et/ou l'abondance de trois espèces de parasites intestinaux et (3) leur survie juvénile. Ce travail a fourni une méthode appropriée pour la détermination de génotypes fiables sur un grand nombre d'échantillons en utilisant des techniques de séquençage de nouvelle génération. Ensuite, nous avons constaté l'existence d'un choix de partenaire basé sur le CMH mais aussi sur les caractéristiques de l'ensemble du génome. Par la suite, nous avons mis en évidence le faible rôle du CMH sur la présence et abondance de trois espèces de parasites intestinaux. Finalement, nous avons constaté que l'association entre la survie juvénile et les caractéristiques génétiques du CMH et de l'ensemble du génome ont changé au cours des vingt-trois ans de suivi de la population. Dans l'ensemble, cette thèse présente une approche intégrée de l'étude des rôles du CMH sur une population contemporaine de marmottes Alpines / Intra-specific genetic diversity represents the true potential of adaptation of species and is thus essential for evolutionary change. In vertebrates, the genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) play a critical role in vertebrate disease resistance by initiating immune response. The selective pressure carried out by parasites and sexual selection via mate choice are supposed to maintain the extreme diversity found in the MHC. Yet, empirical differentiation of selective pressures acting on MHC in the wild requires individually based monitoring of a large number of individuals and genotyping them. The aim of this thesis was firstly to develop and apply a genotyping protocol in Alpine marmots (Marmota marmota) to genotype four previously described MHC loci. This allows subsequently to evaluate, in a wild population of Alpine marmots, if MHC characteristics play a role (1) on mate choice, (2) on the presence and/or abundance of three intestinal parasite species and (3) on juvenile survival. This work provided a suitable method to reliably genotype large number of individuals using next-generation sequencing techniques. Then, we found evidences for female mate choice based on MHC but also on neutral genetic characteristics. Subsequently, we evidenced the weak role of MHC characteristics on the presence and abundance of three intestinal parasites. Finally, we found evidences for a change of the effect of genetic diversity at both MHC and neutral loci on juvenile survival during the 23-year monitoring study. Overall, this thesis comprises an integrated approach for the study of the roles of MHC in a contemporaneous population of Alpine marmots

The topic of semestral thesis is methods to detect selection in DNA sequences. In the begining of the thesis we will describe molecular evolution. It will be written what made the evolution and how the evolution is shown. Moreover there are gen mutations and mechanisms of diffuse and fixation. It will be defined what pozitive, negative and neutral selection is. The thesis is focused on evolution distance of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitution. There will be described three methods – Nei-Gojobori, Li-Wu-Luo and Comeron. All these methods will be described with mathematic formulas. There will be statistic test to decide what kind of selection ti is – there will be used z-test. In the practical part, there will be information about developed software what counts selection pressure from sequences from databazes in format GenBank and it shows parts where selection is. The software will be used for two data sets with two different genetic codes. The result will be discussed. We will discuss results of all three methods of selection pressure and influence of input parametrs.

7 Abstract Bird nests protect eggs and nestlings, allowing the parents to leave their offspring and subsequently return to them. Their thermoregulatory properties reduce energetic costs of incubation and brooding of nestlings. For all these reasons, nests are key structures for the reproduction of a majority of avian species and as such they should be subject to natural selection. Several hypotheses describing selection pressures which affect the size of nests or some of their parts have been suggested. In my PhD thesis, I investigated some of them in the great reed warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus) - an open nesting passerine species with very variable nest size. For this purpose, I used a large dataset of several hundred measured great reed warbler nests, nest enlargement experiments and an experiment with artificial nests. In accordance with previous studies, we did not find that nest size affects the probability of common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) brood parasitism, while it was influenced by other factors, such as timing of breeding, reed density around the nest and nest visibility from the nearest potential cuckoo perch site. More interestingly, we found that cuckoos adjust their nest-searching strategy in relation to availability of host nests. When host nests were scarce, cuckoos parasitized all of...

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Ce mémoire propose de faire l’analyse épistémologique du pouvoir créateur de la sélection naturelle. L’objectif sera de déterminer en quelle mesure il est légitime ou non de lui attribuer un tel pouvoir. Pour ce faire, il sera question de savoir si l’explication sélectionniste peut répondre à la question de l’origine des formes structurelles du vivant. Au premier chapitre, nous verrons le raisonnement qui mena Darwin à accorder un pouvoir créateur à la sélection naturelle. Nous comprendrons alors qu’un cadre exclusivement darwinien n’est peut-être pas à même de répondre au problème de la nouveauté évolutionnaire. Au deuxième chapitre, nous verrons dans une perspective darwinienne qu’il est possible de conserver l’essence de la théorie darwinienne et d’accorder à la sélection naturelle un pouvoir créateur, bien que deux des piliers darwiniens fondamentaux doivent être remis en question. Au troisième chapitre, nous verrons dans une perspective postdarwinienne que le pouvoir cumulatif de la sélection naturelle n’est peut-être pas à même d’expliquer l’adaptation sur le plan individuel, ce qui remet lourdement en question le pouvoir créateur de la sélection naturelle. Nous comprendrons alors que le débat, entre partisans d’une vision positive et partisans d’une vision négative de la sélection naturelle, dépend peut-être d’un présupposé métaphysique particulier. / This thesis proposes an epistemological analysis of the creative power of natural selection. The aim will be to determine to what extent it is legitimate or not to give to this selection such power. To do this, we will have to know if the selectionist explanation can answer the question of the origin of structural forms of life. In the first chapter, we will see the reasoning leading Darwin to give a creative power of natural selection. We will then understand that an exclusively Darwinian framework is maybe unable to address the problem of evolutionary novelty. In the second chapter, we will see in a Darwinian way that it is possible to retain the essence of Darwinian theory and to give natural selection a creative power, although two of the fundamental Darwinians pillars must be questioned. In the third chapter, we will see in a post-Darwinian way that the cumulative power of natural selection is maybe unable to explain adaptation at individual level, challenging seriously the creative power of natural selection. We will then understand that the debate, between supporters of a positive view and supporters of a negative view of natural selection, may depend on a particular metaphysical assumption.