Vindförbergs gravfält ligger i Ore socken, Dalarna, och klassificeras av många som ett insjögravfält. Dessa har varit aktiva under järnåldern till den tidiga medeltiden, och många frågetecken kvarstår ännu kring den eller de kulturer som etablerat dem. Den här uppsatsen undersöker de deponeringar av hornmaterial som påträffats vid Vindförbergs gravfält. Syftet är att undersöka dessas funktion och betydelse, skillnader mellan gravar med respektive utan deponeringar samt skillnader och likheter mellan Vindförberg och Krankmårtenhögen. Uppsatsen tillämpar osteologiska metoder, kompletterade med arkeologiska metoder, samt komparativa metoder. Den komparativa metoden har tillämpats gentemot Krankmårtenhögen, för att försätta de övriga resultaten i en större kontext. Studien har kunnat konstatera att hornen placerats medvetet på gravarna som statussymboler eller okända ritualistiska skäl. Studien har även kunnat konstatera att det finns vissa betydelsefulla skillnader mellan gravar med respektive utan deponeringar av horn, då främst gällande åldern då de begravda individerna avled. Vidare har studien kunnat konstatera starka likheter mellan Vindförbergs och Krankmårtenhögens respektive gravfält, vilket styrker en kulturell koppling trots vissa skillnader i mängden deponerat material. / Vindförberg's burial ground is located in Ore parish, Dalarna, and is classified by many as a inland lake burial ground. These have been active during the Iron Age to the early Middle Ages, and many questions still remain about the culture(s) that established them. This paper examines the deposits of horn material found at the Vindförberg burial ground. The aim is to investigate their function and significance, differences between graves with and without deposits, and differences and similarities between Vindförberg and Krankmårtenhögen. The essay applies osteological methods, supplemented with archaeological methods, as well as comparative methods. The comparative method has been applied to Krankmårtenhögen, in order to put the other results in a larger context. The study has been able to establish that the horns were deliberately placed on the graves as status symbols or for unknown ritualistic reasons. The study has also been able to establish that there are some significant differences between graves with and without deposits of horns, mainly regarding the age at which the buried individuals died. Furthermore, the study has been able to establish strong similarities between Vindförberg's and Krankmårtenhögen's respective burial grounds, which proves a cultural connection, despite some differences in the amount of deposited material.

This essay focuses on how the osteological analysis is carried out in studies of different types of mass graves. The analysis is based on 20 studies of different types of mass graves. The 20 studies were selected because they represent analyses of various types of mass graves and because they all contain a presentation of the methods used in the examinations of the remains. Different types of archaeological mass graves are examined as well as forensically interesting ones. Similarities and differences between aims, questions asked, and methodology in studies of different types of mass graves are examined. The purpose for which the various methods are used is also investigated with the aim of seeing whether the same method can be utilized for different purposes in studies of different types of mass graves.  One conclusion reached is that a tendency can be seen that a certain set of methods is used in most studies of mass graves. Some differences can be seen depending on the main focus of the studies and the type of mass grave that is examined. The main differences can be distinguished between archaeological and forensic investigations. The two disciplines are similar in many ways but the focus in the studies and the purpose of them often differ. In forensic studies the aim is usually identification, while archaeological studies tend to have a broader focus, which is reflected in choices of methods and questions asked.  In all of the studies, largely the same kind of methods are used, however, it appears that different versions of a method can be applied. Researchers have developed various more specific versions of methods and a tendency can be seen that the different studies use different versions of the same kind of methods.  Another conclusion drawn is that although researchers state that at the moment there is no common standard for how investigations of mass graves should be carried out, it appears in this essay that a certain common structure can still be seen. Although there is no stated standard, there seems to be an unspoken one, at least when it comes to methodology in examinations of human remains from mass graves.

In this thesis, three individuals were analysed from the medieval church St. Hans in Visby, Sweden. The three individuals were interred within the older graveyard of ‘All-Saints’ Church’. The burial of multiple individuals in a single grave was considered exceptional due to its deviation from standard burial rituals. The archaeological report suggested a familial connection among the buried individuals, with individual 13 initially buried in a wooden coffin, followed by individual 10 laid atop the coffin, and individual 9 subsequently laid atop individual 10. The study focused on non-metric traits, in these three individuals. Non-metric traits of the skeleton encompass features with a presumed genetic basis, which can also be influenced by external environmental factors and internal physiological conditions. These traits, categorised into dental, cranial, and post-cranial traits, were typically employed to investigate population affinities and aid in forensic identification. However, their genetic nature also can render them useful for examining familial relationships. Despite their potential, utilising non-metric traits to ascertain familial relationships posed challenges. These challenges included data quality, stratigraphic association, and data gaps in the St. Hans material. Understanding these constraints was crucial for determining the reliability of non-metric traits as a tool for familial analysis. / I denna uppsats har tre individer analyserats från den medeltida kyrkan S:t Hans i Visby, Sverige. De tre individerna var gravsatta i den äldre begravningsplatsen som tillhörde Allhelgonakyrkan. Begravningen av flera personer i en och samma grav betraktades som exceptionell på grund av avvikelsen från standardbegravningsritualer. Den arkeologiska rapporten föreslog en släktskaplig koppling mellan de begravda individerna, där individ 13 initialt begravdes i en träkista, följt av individ 10 som lades ovanpå kistan, och individ 9 som därefter lades ovanpå individ 10. Studien fokuserade på icke-metriska egenskaper hos dessa tre individer. Icke-metriska särdrag I skelettet omfattar drag med en möjlig genetisk grund, som också kan påverkas av externa miljöfaktorer och interna fysiologiska förhållanden. Dessa egenskaper, kategoriseras som dentala, kraniala och post-kraniala egenskaper, användes vanligtvis för att undersöka populationsaffiniteter och bistå vid rättsmedicinsk identifiering. Trots deras potential utgjorde användningen av icke-metriska egenskaper för att fastställa släktskapsrelationer utmaningar. Dessa utmaningar inkluderade datorkvalitet, stratigrafisk sammanslutning och dataluckor i materialet från S:t Hans. Att förstå dessa begränsningar var avgörande för att fastställa tillförlitligheten hos icke-metriska egenskaper som ett verktyg för släktanalyser.

This thesis creates an osteological biography of the seven horses buried in the boat graves Valsgärde 3, 9, 10, 11, 12 & 15, and explores how the horses were placed in the graves and their part in the burial performance. The thesis focuses on the Valsgärde burial site and the final part of the Viking Age. Using the equine skeletal remains, a variety of osteological methods areapplied to answer the research questions. Archaeothanatology and performance archaeology are used for the theoretical framework for the thesis. The osteological analysis indicates that all horses except for the horse from Valsgärde 10 are of a similar size and health status. Valsgärde 3 contained two horses, and the remaining five graves contained a single horse. Five horses could be sexed as male while the remaining two are uncertain. The horses vary in age from a minimum of two and a half to eleven years and seem to have been buried whole. A definitive cause of death could not be determined, though three potential methods are discussed. The horses were placed in the burials in a few different positions, with some similarities which seem to be chronologically linked. / Den här uppsatsen skapar en osteologisk biografi av de sju hästar som begravts i båtgravarna Valsgärde 3, 9, 10, 11, 12 & 15, samt utforskar hur hästarna placerades i gravarna och deras deltagande i gravuppträdandet. Uppsatsen fokuserar på Valsgärdegravplatsen och slutet på Vikingatiden. Diverse osteologiska metoder appliceras på hästskeletten för att besvara frågeställningarna. Arkeotanatologi och performance-arkeologi formar uppsatsens teoretiska ramverk. Den osteologiska analysen visar att alla hästar utom den från Valsgärde 10 är av liknande storlek och hälsostatus. Valsgärde 3 innehöll två hästar, de resterande gravarna innehöll endast en var. Fem hästar kunde könsbedömas som hanar, de andra två är obestämda. Hästarna varierar i ålder från två och ett halvt år till elva år och samtliga verkar begravts hela. Ingen definitiv dödsorsak kunde bestämmas, men tre potentiella metoder diskuteras. Hästarna har placerats i ett par olika positioner med likheter som verkar vara kronologiskt sammanlänkade.

This bachelor thesis deals with the correlation between social status and health at the medieval church ruin S:t Hans in Visby. Osteological analysis has been performed on nine adult individuals from the site of S:t Hans. The material was obtained at Gotlands Museum and has diary number 7498/89. The main question was if it is possible to indicate some kind of correlation between social status, in other words the placing of the graves, and the pathological differences in the material. Age, sex, stature and pathological differences has been documented during the osteological analysis to get an understanding of the individuals health status. To understand social status at the site spatial analysis was performed. A grave was explained as ”high status” or ”low status” depending on where at the grave site these were situated. Graves in the church is considered to be of high status while the ones at the older church yard is considered to be of lower status because of its distance from the church. A hypothesis was that individuals in the high status graves would show less pathological differences than the ones in the low status graves. The results obtained from the study tells two different, but interesting, stories. Yes, social status and health status does correlate in some cases, while in other cases they don’t. / Osteoporos och osteoarthritis, då och nu

There is something about horses. Something that through the ages has made people see these animals as something special, almost magical. The use, care and murder of these animals contain information of high value for archaeology. Information that can be hard to find in other materials.These animals and their final resting places bear traces of the emic values and inner worlds of the people that once put them there. People’s thoughts, values and traditions can be visualised from the bodies of the horses that once served them, at times gave their lives for them.The purpose of this essay is to study possible regional similarities and differences in the tradition relating to living and dead horses. This is done through osteological analysis of skeletal remains mainly of horse (Equus) and analysis of the archaeological contexts.The initial hypothesis was that the reason for a somewhat scarce representation of skeletal remains of horse in some places, perhaps relates to how the people in these places handled the bodies of the horses due to tradition and norms within their society.The study also sets out to examine what has made up the foundation for an interpretation of sacrifice and ritual, problematise the application of the concept of sacrifice as well as how archaeology as a research field has been affected and influenced by these notions.A delamination was made to Iron Age since the use of horses for man’s benefit and enjoyment was well established by that time. Geographically a delamination has been made to the islands of Gotland, Stora Karlsö and Öland with the intention of creating a distinct island perspective, where peculiar and unique traditions as well as more general similarities are allowed the same presuppositions. For this reason, three materials from the chosen geographical areas have been subject to osteological analysis; Stormyr in Bäl Parish on Gotland, Norderhamn in Eksta Parish on Stora Karlsö and a material from Löt Parish on Öland.The results show a general pattern in handling as well as in how both living and dead horses were perceived in the studied locations. However, it is also clear that regional differences occur in these areas.No osteological markers that can indicate any difference in type between the analysed horses have been found. There is however some trauma that indicates that some horses may have been used as workforce and means of transportation for example.The result also show that several factors in the represented cases could have affected the basis of estimation that led to a ritualistic interpretation, for example the frequency of finds, the extent of exploitation of an area, education, the development of methodology over time, etc.

Denna studie inkluderar resultat från osteologiska analyser från tre stenålderslokaler på Gotland: Visborgs Kungsladugård, Strå samt Gisslause. Dessa tre lokaler är daterade till Mesolitikum, dvs. bland de tidigaste faserna på Gotland. En majoritet av de identifierade benen har varit från säl och därför har uppsatsen kommit att handla om den säljakt som utövats på dessa tre platser. Utifrån de fynd som analyserats har skillnader kunnat uttolkas vad det gäller både åldersfördelning och fördelning av olika sälarter mellan vissa av lokalerna. Visborgs Kungsladugård visar på en majoritet av yngre gråsälar till skillnad från Strå och Gisslause där det existerar en jämn fördelning mellan gråsäl och vikare, likaså en jämn fördelning mellan åldrarna. Tolkningen av detta pekar på en delvis säsongsjakt där populationerna har jagat på olika sätt på olika delar av Gotland. I uppsatsen har även en diskussion angående den marina anpassningen tagits upp. Denna anpassning har setts i tre stadier, lakustrin, littorin och marin. Den mesolitiska populationen på Gotland passar in på det littorina stadiet där en full marin kultur inte ännu varit helt utvecklad. Då det främst jagats säl på och nära stranden samt att ett visst insjöfiske utövats påvisar resultaten att ett fullt utnyttjande av havet ännu inte bedrivits.

To differentiate between bones from sheep (Ovis aries) and bones from of goats (Capra hircus) is a long lasting challenge for zoologists, archaeozoologists and osteologists. Especially considering archaeological remains which are often found fractured and poorly preserved due to taphonomic processes. Zeder & Pilaar’s (2010) and Zeder & Lapham’s (2010) methods of species differentiation has shown promising results when used on bones from modern sheeps and goats. This paper aims to evaluate these methods by exerting them on excavated bones from kv. Apoteket 4-5, a late Viking Age and early Medieval quarter in central Visby. The results have shown that Zeder & Pilaar’s (2010) methods of identifying sheeps and goats with the mandibular teeths and mandibles are unreliable due to disturbances from wear, fragmentation and weak criterias. Results from Zeder & Laphams (2010) methods for post cranial bones shows mixed results considering a pilot study with the implementation of ancient DNA, which was executed att Gotland University during summer and fall 2011. More extensive studies in the future with the implementation of archaeogenetics are planned which can be used to further develop these methods and thus increase the reliabiltiy of the results.In this study 5,3kg of bones were osteologically species identified and analyzed. The results were used to recreate the use of sheep and goats including butchery techniques, animal husbandry and livestock health status with focus on the sheeps and goats in an early Medieval town quarter in Visby. / Att skilja mellan ben från får och ben från get har länge varit en utmaning för zoologer, arkeozoologer och osteologer. Särskilt när ett arkeologiskt benmaterial undersöks eftersom materialet ofta är fragmenterat och sämre bevarat. Zeder & Pilaar (2010) och Zeder & Laphams (2010) metoder för att skilja mellan får och get har uppvisat lovande resultat när ben från moderna får och getter har undersökts. Syftet med denna kandidatuppsats är att utvärdera dessa metoder genom att tillämpa dem på ett arkeologiskt material från kv. Apoteket 4-5 i Visby.Resultatet från analysen visar att Zeder och Pilaars metod för underkäkar och underkäkständer är otillförlitlig på grund av förekomst av slitage, fragmentering och svaga kriterier. Resultatet från Zeder och Laphams metod för postkraniala benslag visar en mer blandad tillförlitlighet om man ser till de jämförelser som har gjorts mot en studie av förhistoriskt DNA som genomfördes på Högskolan på Gotland under 2011 på material från kv. Apoteket 4-5. En mer omfattande studie vilket inkluderar en arkeogenetisk undersökning är planerad i framtiden. Resultatet från studierna ska användas för att utveckla metoderna och på så sätt öka metodernas tillförlitlighet.I undersökningen som ligger till grund för denna kandidatuppsats har 5,3 kg benmaterial från kv. Apoteket 4-5 identifierats och analyserats osteologiskt. Resultatet användes för att återskapa användningen av får och getter och på så sätt erhålla information om slaktteknik, djurhållning och djurens hälsa i ett stadskvarter i Visby under sen vikingatid och tidig medeltid.

This essay deals with the diseases osteoporosis and osteoarthritis in a medieval population from Visby in Sweden. The aim has been to evaluate to what extent and in what way these diseases have influenced the people of a relatively large harbour town during the Middle Ages. 24 individuals were analysed osteologicaly and 19 of them became subject for measurements of bone density through DEXA readings. Furthermore four individuals were x-rayed based on external differences due to osteoarthritis and a change in the depression at the base of the medial surface of the greater trochanter. Similar studies have been made in Trondheim, Norway and Wharram Percy, Great Britain. These were exceedingly larger than the study made for this essay and showed a higher number of individuals with the above mentioned diseases, compared to only one individual with osteopenia, a precursor of osteoporosis, and two individuals with osteoarthritis in the population from Visby. Additionally reasons for a population to be effected by the diseases has been evaluated and discussed. Climate and geology have been suggested as having an impact on the frequency of osteoporosis in a population as well as heredity.  For osteoarthritis a theoretical connection has been made to the changes in the trochanteric fossa. / Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit den Krankheiten Osteoporose und Osteoarthrose in einer mittelalterlichen Bevölkerung in Visby, Schweden. Das Ziel war zu bewerten, in welchem Umfang und in welcher Weise diese Krankheiten die Menschen in einer relativ großen Hafenstadt im Mittelalter beeinflusst haben. 24 Individuen wurden osteologisch analysierte und 19 von ihnen wurden für die Messung von Knochendichte durch DEXA Lesungen ausgewählt. Darüber hinaus wurden vier Individuen auf der Grundlage externer Unterschiede aufgrund von Arthrose und eine Änderung in der Depression an der Basis der medialen Oberfläche des Trochanter major geröntgt. Ähnliche Studien wurden in Trondheim, Norwegen, und Wharram Percy, Großbritannien, durchgeführt. Es waren umfangreichere Studien als die für diese Arbeit und sie zeigten auch eine höhere Anzahl von Individuen mit den oben genannten Erkrankungen, vergleichbar mit nur einer Person mit Osteopenie, eine Vorstufe der Osteoporose, und zwei Personen mit Osteoarthrose in der Bevölkerung von Visby. Zusätzlich wurden die möglichen Gründe dieser Krankheiten in einer Bevölkerung geklärt und diskutiert. Als Ursachen für die Häufigkeit von Osteoporose wurden Klima und Geologie sowie Vererbung vorgeschlagen. Vier gleichartige Veränderungen an Oberschenkelknochen führten außerdem zu der Hypothese dass ein Zusammenhang zwischen Veränderungen in der Fossa trochanterica  und Osteoarthrose besteht.

This study is an extension of the author's previous thesis (Theorell 2013) and focus on the analysed tibia, the humerus and the proximal and distal part of the radius of sheep bones from Gotland and goat bones from City of Falun. Methods for bone elements assessed in this study are compiled and evaluated by Zeder and Lapham (2010). The bones were then geneticallyspecies identified and the results were compared. Seven of thirteen criteria for both sheep and goat reached 100% of correct identification.Best performing criteria were on humerus and distal radius for both sheep and goats. The results for the complete bone assessments divided for the species showed best performance ongoats. Worst performing bone is the tibia. High performing criteria were found on all thetypes of bones used in this study which can be used to distinguish between sheep and goats. / Föreliggande studie är en utökning av författarens tidigare magisteruppsats (Theorell 2013) och fokuserar på att analysera skenben, överarmsben samt proximal och distal del av strålbenet från fårben från Gotland och getben från Falun. Metoder för benslagen som används i denna studie har samlats och utvärderats av Zeder och Lapham (2010). Efter osteologisk analys har benen genetiskt artidentifierats och resultaten från bägge analyser har jämförts. Sju av tretton kriterier för både får och getter visade 100% korrekt bedömning. Kriterier med bäst resultat fanns på överarmsben och distalt på strålben. Sett till bedömning av komplett benslag skilt mellan får och getter visade att metoderna presterade bäst på getter. Sämst resultat uppvisades på skenbenet. Generellt uppvisade samtliga benslag kriterier som är möjliga att använda för att särskilja mellan får och getter.