The code of silence is a major social issue because it obstructs the work against criminal networks. It is based on the fact that members of the networks tend not to report crimes or testify, partly due to the norm of not talking to representatives of the judiciary and due to the risk of being subjected to violence. The aim of this qualitative study is to gain a deeper understanding of the code of silence as a phenomenon within criminal networks. The study is based on interviews with former members of criminal networks. Previous research has shown that legitimacy of violence does not deter members from prosecution. Members also find it difficult to leave the network due to the social relationship. The interviewees emphasize that there is a code of silence towards the police and other members. A deeply imprinted behavior persists till today. The conclusion is that the code of silence towards the police is considered to be an essential part of the network, which is maintained due to violence and learned behavior. The emotional bonds that remain towards the network are the reasons for the participants behavior still being pervaded by a code of silence. / Tystnadskultur är ett stort samhällsproblem eftersom det försvårar arbetet mot kriminella nätverk. Det baseras på att medlemmar tenderar att inte anmäla brott eller vittna, dels på grund av normen kring att inte prata med rättsväsendets representanter och dels på grund av risken att utsättas för våld om de gör det. Syftet med denna kvalitativa studie att få djupare förståelse för tystnadskulturen som fenomen inom de kriminella nätverken. Studien baseras på intervjuer med före detta medlemmar av kriminella nätverk. Tidigare forskning har visat att våldets legitimitet inte avskräcker medlemmar från lagföring och straff. Medlemmar har också svårt att lämna på grund av den sociala relationen till nätverket. Studien baseras på intervjuer med före detta medlemmar av kriminella nätverk. Intervjupersonerna betonar att det finns tystnadskultur både mot polis och andra medlemmar. Det är även ett djupt präglat beteende som finns kvar även idag. Slutsatsen är att tystnadskulturen mot polisen är viktigt för nätverkets struktur. Den upprätthålls på grund av rädsla för våldet och betraktas som ett inlärt beteende. Den emotionella relationen som finns kvar mot nätverket gör att intervjupersonernas vardagliga beteende fortfarande präglas av tystnadskulturen.

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Inledning: Tystnad finns alltid närvarande i den terapeutiska processen och blir ett utrymme föromedveten kommunikation där latenta budskap kan förmedlas bortom orden. I samtidaforskning har det visat att tystnaden som uppstår hos psykoterapeuten och den unga vuxna kanupplevas som hindrande av den unga vuxna och skulle kunna påverka behandlingsresultatet. Syfte: Syftet med studien var att undersöka legitimerade och verksamma psykoterapeuters erfarenheter av sin egen och den unga vuxnas tystnad som uppkommer i den terapeutiska processen i psykodynamisk psykoterapi med patienter som är 18 - 25 år. Metod: Kvalitativ metod användes där fem psykoterapeuter intervjuades. Resultat: Tystnad upplevdes som en betydelsefull del i den terapeutiska processen och dess betydelse måste förstås. Tystnadens betydelse kunde handla om att vara ett utrymme för självreflektion, där den unga vuxna kunde upptäcka sig själv och öva på ensamhet, men också vara en icke verbal kommunikation. Ett aktivt och närvarande förhållningssätt eftersträvades där psykoterapeuten behövde ta ansvar så tystnaden inte skapade för hög ångest. Metakommunikation kring relationen och att sätta ord på tystnaden sågs som viktigt. Den unga vuxna kunde öka sin förmåga till mentalisering genom att psykoterapeuten satte ord på tystnaden och sina egna tankar samt skapade ett reflekterande förhållningssätt tillsammans med den unga vuxna. Diskussion: Tystnad kunde både vara verksam och inte med en ung vuxen. Tystnaden förutsatte en god relation och när tystnaden var gynnsam kunde den vara en del i att växa som vuxen. Ett anpassat förhållningssätt till tystnad krävdes annars fanns det en risk att det påverkade psykoterapin negativt. / Introduction: Silence is always present in the therapeutic process and becomes a space forunconscious communication where latent messages can be conveyed beyond words. In contemporary research, it has been shown that the silence that arises in the psychotherapist and the young adult can be perceived as an obstacle by the young adult and could affect thetreatment result. Purpose: The purpose of the study was to investigate legitimate and active psychotherapists experiences of their own and the young adult´s silence that arises in the therapeutic process of psychodynamic psychotherapy with patients aged 18-25. Method: Qualitative method was used where five psychotherapists were interviewed. Results: Silence was perceived as an important part of the therapeutic process and itssignificance must be understood. The meaning of silence could be about being a space for selfreflection,where the young adult could discover himself and practice loneliness, but also be a non-verbal communication. An active and competitive attitude was sought where the psychotherapist needed to take responsibility so that the silence did not create too much anxiety. Metacommunication around the relationship and putting words to the silence was important. By the psychotherapist putting words to the silence and creating his own thoughts, a reflective approach is required, increasing the young adult's ability to mentalize. Discussion: Silence could both be effective and not with a young adult. Silence presupposed a good relationship and when silence was favorable, it could be a part of growing as an adult. An adapted approach to silence was required compared otherwise there was a risk that it had a negative effect on psychotherapy.

Sammanfattning Bakgrund: Tidigare forskning har visat att organisatorisk tystnad renderar i många konsekvenser som har påverkan på organisationers välmående, effektivitet och möjligheter till utveckling. Genom att förstå hur tystnadskultur uppstår och vilka de bakomliggande faktorerna som skapar den ges en organisation möjlighet att agera istället för att reagera när faktum är fullbordat och tystnadskulturen konstaterad. Syfte: Syftet med denna systematiska litteraturstudie var att undersöka det aktuella forskningsläget avseende vilka faktorer som skapar organisatorisk tystnadskultur. Metod: Denna uppsats har haft en kvalitativ ansats och forskningsdesignen var en systematisk litteraturstudie, som analyserade nio vetenskapliga artiklar varav sju hade en kvantitativ ansats.  Resultat: Det viktigaste resultatet var att faktorerna rädsla och ett destruktivt ledarskapsbeteende var de mest framträdande faktorerna som skapade en organisatorisk tystnad. Rädslan uppstod hos de anställda och spreds uppåt i organisationen och destruktiva ledarskapsbeteendet kom från toppen av en organisation och spreds nedåt till medarbetarna.  Diskussion/slutsatser: Studiens första slutsats var att destruktiva ledarskapsbeteenden var den faktor som var starkast framträdande vid skapandet av organisatorisk tystnadskultur och rädsla var den faktor som drev och förstärkte tystnadskulturer i organisationer. En andra slutsats var att samtliga faktorer var sammankopplade i ett kretslopp som interagerade, påverkade och förstärkte varandra, och att det inte räckte att bara förebygga eller agera mot en faktor i taget. Författarnas tredje slutsats var att transformella ledarbeteenden och utvecklande ledarskap hade störst sannolikhet att skapa en psykologisk trygg arbetsplats. / Abstract Background: Previous research has shown that organizational silence results in many consequences that affect the well-being, efficiency and development opportunities of organizations. By understanding how silence culture arises and what the underlying factors that create it are, an organization is given the opportunity to act instead of reacting when the fact is accomplished and the silence culture is confirmed. Purpose: The purpose of this systematic literature review was to examine the current state of research regarding what factors create organizational silence culture.  Method: This paper has had a qualitative approach and the research design was a systematic literature review, which analyzed nine scientific articles of which seven had a quantitative approach. Results: The most important result was that the factors of fear and destructive leadership behavior were the most prominent factors that created organizational silence. The fear arose among the employees and spread upward in the organization and the destructive leadership behavior came from the top of an organization and spread downward to the employees. Discussion/conclusions: The first conclusion of the study was that destructive leadership behaviors were the factor that was most prominent in creating organizational silence culture and fear was the factor that drove and reinforced silence cultures in organizations. A second conclusion was that all factors were interconnected in a cycle that interacted, influenced and reinforced each other, and that it was not enough to just prevent or act against one factor at a time. The authors’ third conclusion was that transformational leadership behaviors and developmental leadership had the greatest likelihood of creating a psychologically safe workplace

Tystnad kan användas som ett kognitivt verktyg för att påverka en filmupplevelse och för att förhöja vissa audiovisuella aspekter. Denna studie undersöker hur tystnad som berättargrepp inom genren sci-fi kan användas genom två koncept för ljudinspelning: fidelity, som är en trogen ljudinspelning av vad som visas i bild, och intelligibility, som adderar ljud för narrativ information. Koncepten lät oss som ljuddesigners analysera och kontrollera tystnadsögonblicken i varje scenario. Point of audition användes som ett adderat designverktyg för att fokusera tystnadsögonblicken i narrativet. Genom diskussion i fokusgrupper kunde vi utvärdera hur tystnaden upplevdes i varje separat klipp. Studien visade att tystnad som berättargrepp föredrogs vid en kombination av de två koncepten. / Silence can be used as a cognitive tool to influence a film experience and to elevate certain audiovisual aspects. This study examines how silence as a narrative technique in the sci-fi genre can be used through two concepts for sound recording: fidelity, which is a faithful sound recording of what is shown on screen, and intelligibility, which adds sound for narrative information. The concepts allowed us as sound designers to analyze and control the moments of silence in each scenario. Point of audition was used as an added design tool to focus the moments of silence in the narrative. Through discussions in focus groups, we were able to evaluate how the silence was experienced in each separate clip. The study showed that silence as a narrative approach was preferred in a combination of the two concepts.

The aim of this thesis is to analyse the silence principle (i.e. the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination) and to determine its place within procedural and constitutional law. Should the silence principle be entirely abolished, sustained as a limited evidentiary rule or elevated to the status of a constitutional right? The central question to be argued is whether the silence principle has a rationally justifiable and valid procedural place within the accusatorial-adversarial Anglo-American system of criminal justice. The methodology employed in the main body of this thesis involves a critical and comparative examination of the silence principle and is founded on the following four legs : a) A historical analysis of the silence principle and its antecedents. Does the historical silence principle support the modern silence principle in description and scope? b) An analysis of the distinction between a "right" and a "privilege". Why is the accused's right to silence distinguished from the witness privilege? Is there a philosophical justification for the silence principle? c) A comparative study of the two major jurisdictions of the Anglo-American system of justice, namely : i) The American silence principle constituted as the fifth amendment privilege against self-incrimination and entrenched within the U.S. Constitution; ii) The English silence principle constituted until recently as a common law evidentiary rule contained within a body of ill-defined principles loosely referred to as the unwritten English Constitution. The common law rule has been statutorily formalized in the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 and will be greatly influenced by the new Human Rights Act 1998. iii) The South African interpretation of a silence principle is caught between the two extremes of an American absolute right and an English evidentiary rule. Silence in South Africa is a relative right subject to a balance of interest and reasonable limitation. Which of these definitions is better suited as a template for an ideal silence principle? vi d) A comparative international study of the procedural differences between an inquisitorial and an accusatorial system. How does a principle of silence function outside the accusatorial system? The conclusion of the thesis is that the most suitable role of a silence principle within the accusatorial system is one of a flexible compromise. While it does not deserve abolition neither does it deserve elevation into a constitutional right. Silence is best suited to the role of a procedural evidentiary rule. A circumstantial item of evidence with its trial admissibility determined by the criteria of relevancy and prejudice. If the legal, political and cultural pressures upon a particular jurisdiction are such as to demand constitutional entrenchment then the second best alternative is to define the silence principle as a relative right susceptible to a properly applied balance of interest test. The worst alternative is to define the silence principle in absolute terms. Silence as an evidentiary rule or a relative right means that it will sometimes be necessary to emphasise the autonomous interests of the individual in remaining silent and at other times the societal interest in crime prevention. Which interest is to be preferred and to what extent will depend on the prevailing social pressures of the day. It shall be argued that the elevation of a silence principle into a constitutional right stifles a critical examination of the essentiale of silence by disguising its inherent irrationality and lack of a philosophical raison de etre. The interpretation of a silence principle as an absolute constitutional right by the Supreme Court of the United States is confusing, contradictory and riddled with innumerable exceptions. By contrast the English approach to silence is pragmatic and highly successful. The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act of 1994 gives a meaningful interpretation of silence which takes into account its logical flaws. The English statute is a successful compromise between the need to protect the individual during the criminal process and the need to combating crime in the most efficient manner possible. While the South African interpretation of silence is a workable compromise, South Africa may have been better served by defining its silence principle in terms of the pragmatic English statutory model which allows for the efficient but carefully controlled use of silence in the combating of crime. / Jurisprudence / LL.D. (Jurisprudence)

Thesis (LL.D.)--University of South Africa, 2001.

The purpose of Att vara en i mängden… – En studie om religiös isolering på Facebook (Running with the pack… – A study on religious isolation on Facebook) is to gain an understanding of religious isolation between Christian, Jewish, Muslim and non-religious people. Further, the purpose is also to gain insight on how Christians, Jews and Muslims experience Facebook as a platform for expressing religious identity. The study was made using a concurrent mixed method, combining quantitative and qualitative methods, targeting Swedish Facebook users. The theoretical framework behind the study is The Spiral of Silence, by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann.The results indicate that religious isolation exists, and that it effects how prone users are to self-disclose about their religious identity. Also, the study shows that public opinion does not affect how prone users are to self-disclose. Rather, it is determined by the perceived opinion of the people in the user’s Facebook network. Due to the algorithm used by Facebook to filter users’ newsfeed, the recommendation to all Facebook users is to deliberately show interest to a diversity of religious content

Amitav Ghosh's novel The Calcutta Chromosome is a science-fiction which deals with subalter voice. In this paper I have discussed that how Ghosh has written an alternative hisory for the suabltern and how he establishes a connection between subaltern and the science-fictional term, the posthuman. I also argue that through such representation Ghosh proposes a open ended way to think about the subaltern future as well.

Due to the nature of the condition, research into selective mutism has tended towards quantitative analyses or individual case studies. This study aimed to explore the personal experiences of adolescents with selective mutism whilst considering the threats to validity that exist in previous qualitative studies. In a series of case studies (n=6), methods of eliciting data derived from Personal Construct Psychology were employed. Experience Cycle Methodology was used to explore the process of construing, whilst the Repertory Grid Technique enabled an exploration of the structure of construing. It was hoped that these methods might identify obstacles to change and inform appropriate interventions. Results suggested that mutism may be ‘chosen’ because it may enable greater anticipation of their interpersonal relationships than does speaking. Furthermore, there were suggestions that selective mutism may be a way of avoiding possible invalidation. Further research into sociality and systemic discourse was proposed in order to understand this condition further.