The relationship between language and self has interested anthropologists for a long time. They have raised, for example, such questions as follows: Is language (i.e., a corpus of vocabulary words) the representation of one's worldview? Or is it language that affects one's worldview? In this study I attempt to examine the relationship between language and self from a different angle; a self dialogized in the process of language interactions. Although comprehension of language structure (such as grammatical rules) among interlocutors is crucial for communication, there are other elements that influence the ways the individuals communicate. My examination of the Iran language practice of ta'arof, hopefully contributes to an understanding of such elements. In ta'arof, Iranians communicate with one another by conveying what they do not mean to say. Examination of ta'arof allowed me to explore a dynamic mechanism in which a self is dialogized through language interaction. I studied this aspect by using research findings that gathered in Iran and the U.S.

The present study investigates the use of hedging devices in the readers’ comment section of the newspaper The Guardian Online. Two comment sections were chosen for the contrastive study: ‘Politics’ in the subsection ‘Comment is free’ and the series ‘Problem solved’ in the subsection ‘Life and style’. The corpus-based analysis of the frequency of hedges has revealed that the incidence of hedging devices in comments on personal issues is higher (by 19.2%) than on political articles. Three of the most frequently occurring hedging devices, namely, might, SEEM and I (don’t) think underwent further contextual analysis: the utterances containing these items were classified according to their illocutionary force, applying Bach’s (2003) classification of illocutionary acts. The most commonly hedged speech act types, characteristic of each section, were revealed.  Subsequently, an attempt was made to account for these findings from the perspective of ‘face’ and ‘facework’ as represented by Brown and Levinson (1987), Lim and Bowers (1991), MacGeorge, Lichtman and Pressey (2002), Ting-Toomey and Kurogi (1998). Since hedging is considered to be an effective strategy in minimizing ‘threats’ to the face of the addressee, it has  been possible to conclude that in discussions of personal issues participants are more concerned to ‘save’ the addressee’s face than in the case of political matters where the comment writers’ ‘self-face seems to be in the forefront.

The aim of this study is to identify and analyse how different communicative acts are used in the teaching of reading comprehension in grade 3. The study is based on five video recordings of the teaching of reading comprehension with a teacher using the common Swedish teaching model known as “läsfixare”. The empirical data have been analysed through systematic studies and interpreted on the basis of six different speech acts with the aid of a recording schema in the form of a checklist. The theory that is the premise for this study is chiefly based on Searle’s research (1979) on different communicative speech acts, but also on Vargas’s research (2013) on the use of speech acts in the classroom. The study shows that the teacher uses all six speech acts: instruct, request, confirm, exemplify, apply and explain. These are chiefly used in combination with each other and reinforced with the aid of body language. The study also shows the relationship between the function of the speech acts in teaching and the choice of “läsfixare” figures. Through increased awareness of the use of speech acts, teachers can be more effective in their teaching of reading comprehension and develop pupils’ reading comprehension.

Syftet med mitt examensarbete är att studera lärares användning av talhandlingar till flickor och pojkar, samt se om talhandlingarna kan ha någon inverkan på elevers talutrymme i klassrummet. Jag har valt att avgränsa mig till tre talhandlingar; beröm, tillsägelser och uppmaningar. Jag undersöker även om lärarnas egna upplevelser av interaktionen i klassrummet stämmer överens med hur det faktiskt ser ut. För att söka svar på mitt syfte och mina frågeställningar har jag använt mig av triangulering genom två metoder. Enskilda intervjuer har genomförts med de berörda lärarna för att få svar på deras kommentarer om interaktionen i klassrummet. Observationer har använts för att observera lärarnas interaktion med eleverna.  Min undersökning visar att lärare använder talhandlingar som beröm och uppmaningar relativt lika mellan flickor och pojkar. Den mest framträdande skillnaden mellan flickor och pojkar är när lärarna ger tillsägelser till eleverna. Då dominerar tillsägelser till pojkarna. Pojkarna tar själva friheten till att uttrycka sig fritt i klassrummet och får där med mer talutrymme. Lärarna själva ansåg inte att de gjorde någon skillnad mellan könen vid tillsägelser, vilket dock inte visade sig vara fallet i mina analyser av observationerna. Även utformningen av tillsägelser skiljer sig mellan könen. Till flickor är det vanligare med indirekta tillsägelser och till pojkar direkta. När pojkar får tillsägelser av lärarna handlar det oftast om beteenden som stör andra i klassen. När flickor får tillsägelser gäller det i allmänhet sådant som enbart stör dem själva. / The aim of my thesis is to study teachers' use of speech-acts for girls and boys, as well as see if the speech acts can influence pupils' speech space in the classroom. I have chosen to delimit my study to three speech acts, praise, reprimands, and calls. I also investigate if the teachers' own experiences of the interaction in the classroom are in line with what it looks like. To seek answers to my questions, I have used the triangulation by two methods. Individual interviews were conducted with the teachers concerned to get answers and their comments about the interaction in the classroom. I also observed the teachers' interactions with students.  My study shows that teachers uses speech acts as praise and calls relatively similar between girls and boys. The most prominent difference between girls and boys is when teachers give reprimands to the students. Then dominate reprimands the boys. The boys themselves take the liberty to express themselves freely in the classroom and get there with more speech space. Teachers themselves considered that they made no distinction between the sexes at reprimands, which not proved to be the case in my analysis of the observations. The design of the reprimands differs between sexes. For girls, it is more common with indirect reprimands and boys directly. When the boys get reprimands by the teachers, it's mostly about behavior that disturbs others in the class. When the girls get reprimands, in general such that only bothers them.

This is a case study that seeks to investigate how two teachers in grade 3 work with instructions to a written assignment in Swedish. The study is grounded in a sociocultural perspective on learning, and is based on observations in a classroom setting. The results show that the two teachers use different forms of mediating tools in their instructions. It was also found that the teachers use different speech acts in the instructions and that the instructions vary depending on which speech acts are included. Neither of the teachers made any adjustments to the collective instructions, instead they made individual adaptations outside the general instruction.

No romance Boquitas Pintadas, de Manuel Puig, encontramos conversações literárias que se aproximam de conversações espontâneas dadas as diversas marcas do registro oral coloquial encontradas. Entre as características de um texto conversacional, notamos que há um jogo de preservação de faces, no qual os participantes fazem usos de estratégias para que não ameacem a liberdade de ação ou a auto-estima de seus interlocutores, para que mantenham o equilíbrio da interação. Estas são as estratégias de cortesia, que serão o foco desta dissertação. Nosso objetivo é analisar as manifestações de cortesia nas conversações literárias selecionadas. Para tanto, apoiando-nos na teoria dos Atos de Fala, em Estudos da Cortesia e em conceitos da Análise da Conversação, buscamos examinar como a distância social entre os participantes, o poder entre eles, e o grau de imposição do ato de fala influencia o uso da cortesia em cada diálogo literário. Os resultados demonstram que nas conversações literárias analisadas a variável que mais motiva o uso de estratégias de cortesia é a relação de poder entre os personagens. / In the Novel wrote by Manuel Puig (1932-1990) firstly published in 1969, we are able to find out literary conversations. These literary conversations are similar to spontaneous conversations in spite of the variety of colloquial oral registers. In their midst characteristics of a conversational text, we are able to figure out that there is a strategic of the face-saving view, in which the speakers exploit strategies that can not be treated their freedom of action or their self-steam, for these reason and with these abilities they can maintain the interaction balance in the conversation. Those are the main strategies of politeness which is the main goal of this dissertation. Our main goal is the analyse of politeness manifestation in the seven literary conversation selected by the novel Boquitas Pintadas. Therefore, based on the Theory of Perlocutionary Acts or Speech acts, in the Politeness studies and in concepts of the Conversation Analysis, we try out to analyze how the social distance between the participants of a conversation (orality), the Power between them, and the level of imposition of the speak acts influence the use of politeness in each of the seven literary dialogue studied. The results developed in this research can demonstrate that in those literary conversation analyzed was found three main varieties: Social Distance, Level of Imposition and Power. And among these varieties, the most important and significant strategy of politeness is the power relation found between the characters inside the conversations.

Esta pesquisa se fundamenta, principalmente, na pragmática sociocultural. Nessa perspectiva, a interpretação da cortesia e da descortesia deve ser realizada a partir de relações entre o linguístico e o sociocultural. Em consonância com essa perspectiva, esta tese objetiva verificar, de modo contrastivo, em corpus do espanhol argentino e do português brasileiro, como está formulado linguisticamente o ato de fala da crítica, quais as possibilidades de respostas a esse ato e quais os efeitos de (des)cortesia presentes nos intercâmbios analisados. Por fim, visa comparar, de modo breve, algumas análises com as percepções dos juízes (informantes) obtidas a partir do método de consulta (BRAVO, 2009). Nosso corpus argentino é formado por 15 cenas do filme FRANCIA (2009) e nosso corpus brasileiro é formado por 14 cenas do filme LINHA DE PASSE (2008). Nesses corpora, selecionamos o ato de fala da crítica em cenas ocorridas em dois âmbitos: o privado e o público. Nossa proposta metodológica é composta, basicamente, por quatro etapas. A primeira e a segunda consistem em analisar linguisticamente em cada corpus o ato de fala da crítica e suas reações a partir do cotexto e do contexto explicitados durante a análise, e a partir dessas trocas interpretar o efeito de (des)cortesia. A terceira etapa consiste em comparar nossa interpretação com a percepção de juízes (informantes) de cada língua, a partir de resultados do método de consulta. A última etapa consiste em tecer comparações entre o âmbito privado e público de cada idioma, para por fim, comentar diferenças e semelhanças entre os dois idiomas. Os resultados da comparação entre os âmbitos em cada idioma demonstram que não há diferenças significativas entre os âmbitos. Quanto aos tipos de críticas, percebemos que, mais do que a influência dos âmbitos, fatores como o grau de compromisso afetivo, a simetria ou assimetria na relação entre os interlocutores, o grau de problematicidade temática da interação, ou seja, da conflituosidade da interação e questões culturais são determinantes nas escolhas linguísticas dos falantes fictícios ao criticar. Acerca das reações, tanto no âmbito privado como no público, predominam as Defesas, dada a natureza ameaçadora do ato de fala da crítica. No que se refere à FRANCIA EA em comparação com LINHA DE PASSE PB, os resultados da análise linguística e sociocultural sinalizam que não há muitas diferenças no modo como argentinos e brasileiros formulam linguisticamente a crítica, mas há diferenças importantes no modo como ambas as nacionalidades reagem a esse ato de fala, diferenças essas, de modo geral, relacionadas às premissas culturais de cada comunidade de fala. / This research is mainly based upon sociocultural pragmatics. In this perspective, the interpretation of politeness and impoliteness has to be done from the relations between linguistic and socialcultural contexts. According to this view, this thesis aims at showing, in a contrastive way, in an Argentinian Spanish corpus and in a Brazilian Portuguese corpus, how speech acts about criticism are linguistically formulated, what the possible responses to these acts are and what (im)politeness effects are present in the analysed exchanges. At last, it focuses on briefly comparing some analyses with judges (informants) perceptions gotten by the consulting method (BRAVO, 2009). Our Argentinian corpus is composed by 15 scenes of the film FRANCIA (2009) and our Brazilian corpus consists of 14 scenes of the film LINHA DE PASSE. In these corpora we have selected speech acts about criticism in scenes that happened in two situations: privately and publicly. Our methodological proposal is basically composed by four phases. The first and the second ones consist of linguistically analysing in each corpus the speech acts about criticism and their reactions established in the co-text and set in the context during the analysis, and interpreting the effect of (im)politeness in these turn exchanges. The third phase consists of comparing our interpretation with judges (informants) perceptions in each language, considering the results from the consulting methods. The last phase consists of making comparisons between the private and the public contexts in each language in order to, at last, comment on differences and similarities between the two languages. The results in the comparison between the contexts in each language show that there are not significant differences in the contexts. As far as the types of criticism are concerned, we see that, more than the influence of the contexts, elements like the degree of affective commitment, the symmetry or asymmetry in the relation among speakers, the degree of theme problems in the interaction, that is, the conflicts in the interaction and the cultural issues are crucial in the linguistic choices the fictional speakers make when criticizing. About reactions, both in the private and in the public contexts, Defenses predominate, due to the threatening nature of the speech act of criticism. Particularly for FRANCIA EA (argentinian spanish) in comparison with LINHA DE PASSE PB (brasilian portuguese), the results of the linguistic and sociocultural analyses show that there are not many differences in the way Argentinians and Brazilians express criticism linguistically, but there are important differences in the way these peoples respond to this type of speech act, which, in general, are concerned with cultural premises specific to each speaking community.

O objetivo do estudo foi sugerir a inserção, em dicionários híbridos italiano>portuguêsbrasileiro tais como o Parola Chiave (2012), de informações acerca da dimensão pragmático-ilocucionária de ambas as línguas, a partir do uso de corpora eletrônicos. A metodologia empregada foi a seguinte: (a) fundamentação teórica, baseada: no conceito de Lexicografia de Krieger (2008) e no de dicionário híbrido de Höfling, Silva e Tosqui (2004); no de Pragmática Linguística e no de atos de fala de Bianchi (2008) e Sbisà (2009); no de Linguística de Corpus de Berber-Sardinha (2000), (2003) e (2004) e Tagnin (2004) e (2013); (b) estabelecimento de critérios para a investigação de ilocuções em corpora italiano e português-brasileiro, a saber: adoção da teoria dos atos de fala proposta por Austin (1990[1975]) (em função de seu critério para reconhecimento de ilocuções, a forma verbal na primeira pessoa do singular do presente do indicativo na voz ativa, e de sua associação ilocuções-verbos); adoção de dois corpora online, Corpus Paisà e Corpus do Português (o primeiro do italiano, o segundo do português-brasileiro, escolhidos em função da extensão de cada um, o que os torna representativos de suas respectivas línguas); adoção de cinco verbos ilocucionários comissivos do italiano, promettere, giurare, assicurare, impegnarsi, garantire (em função da mútua relação sinonímica que possuem entre si, segundo o dicionário Sinonimi e contrari minore (2009)); adoção de cinco verbos ilocucionários comissivos do português-brasileiro, prometer, jurar, assegurar, comprometer-se, garantir (em função de serem semanticamente equivalentes aos respectivos verbos italianos, segundo o Parola Chiave); adoção da forma verbal citada acima como sintaxe de busca para pesquisa em corpora; (c) análise qualitativa e quantitativa: obtiveram-se os números totais de ocorrências de cada ilocução; realizou-se uma análise qualitativa de modo a excluir casos anômalos, cujos critérios de exclusão foram: casos de homonímia, negação, repetição e ininteligibilidade; após obtenção dos números reais, excluíram-se da pesquisa as ilocuções mi impegno e comprometo-me/ me comprometo (em função da baixa frequência); (d) discussão acerca das possibilidades de dicionarização de ilocuções a partir dos resultados de corpora. Como resultado final, a sugestão foi a de inserir: na microestrutura, marcas de uso referentes às classes de ilocução; na micromedioestrutura, remissivas de modo a conduzir o leitor a um texto externo à nomenclatura; na macroestrutura, um texto externo à nomenclatura que contenha: (i) explicações referentes às classes de ilocuções e lista de respectivas espécies convencionalmente recorrentes do italiano dispostas segundo frequência; (ii) espécies de ilocuções equivalentes do português-brasileiro dispostas segundo frequência; (iii) exemplos de uso, retirados dos corpora, de tais verbos ilocucionários desempenhando sua função ilocucionária convencional. / This study aims to suggest a method of inserting, in hybrid Italian>Brazilian-Portuguese dictionaries such as Parola Chiave (2012), information about the pragmaticillocutionary dimension of both languages, through electronic corpora. The methodology used was as follows: (a) theoretical foundation based on: Krieger\'s concept of Lexicography (2008) and Höfling, Silva & Tosqui\'s hybrid dictionary (2004); Bianchi (2008) and Sbisà\'s (2009) Pragmalinguistics and speech acts; Berber- Sardinha (2000, 2003, 2004) and Tagnin\'s (2004, 2013) Corpus Linguistics; (b) establishing criteria for illocution research in corpora, namely: adopting the theory of speech acts proposed by Austin (1990[1995]) as research paradigm (due to its criteria for recognizing illocutions, the verb form in the first-person singular of the present indicative in active voice and its illocution-verbs association); adopting two online corpora, Corpus Paisà and Portuguese Corpus (due to the length of each one, which makes them representative of their languages); adopting five Italian illocutionary verbs of commissive class, promettere, giuare, assicurare, impegnarsi, garantire (due to the mutual synonymy relation they have one to each other, according to Sinonimi e contrari minore (2009)); adopting five illocutionary verbs of Brazilian-Portuguese, as known: prometer, jurar, assegurar, comprometer-se, garantir (for being semantically equivalent to their corresponding verb in Italian, according to Parola Chiave (2009)); adopting the verb form mentioned above as syntax search to corpora research; (c) quantitative and qualitative analysis: the total number of occurrences of each illocution was obtained; a qualitative analysis was conducted in order to exclude anomalous cases, of which exclusion criteria were: cases of homonyms, denial, occurrences repetition and unintelligibility; a quantitative analysis was conducted in order to exclude the illocutions mi impegno and comprometo-me / me comprometo (due to their low frequency); (d) discussion around the possibilities of lexicographical records of illocutions from the results of corpora. As a final result, the suggestion was to insert: in the dictionary microstructure, signs of usage referring to illocution classes; in its micromediumstructure: cross references in order to conduct the reader to a section out of nomenclature; in its macrostructure: a text, external to the nomenclature, containing: (i) explanations related to illocution classes and a list of conventionally recurring species of Italian arranged by frequency; (ii) equivalent illocutions species of Portuguese- Brazilian arranged by frequency; (iii) examples of usage, taken from the corpora, of illocutionary verbs performing their conventional illocutionary function.

Este estudo tem por proposta apresentar questões concernentes ao debate radiofônico, de modo a caracterizá-lo e, ainda, posicioná-lo na escala de discussão polêmica criada por van Eemeren e Grootendorst (1983/2004), observando a constituição argumentativa intrínseca a esse gênero, também no que se refere à sua estrutura e relação com os atos de fala. Amparamo-nos na teoria da Pragmadialética, a qual considera, sobremaneira, a importância dos atos de fala para a solução da disputa em um diálogo, avaliando os movimentos discursivos entrelaçados com a argumentação, além de criar os conceitos de modelo de discussão crítica e de código de conduta para as discussões argumentativas. Para observarmos a aplicabilidade da teoria, selecionamos um corpus que consta de discursos radiodifundidos, composto de programas do quadro intitulado \"Liberdade de expressão\", veiculados pela Rede CBN, do qual participam os jornalistas Heródoto Barbeiro, Carlos Heitor Cony e Artur Xexéo. / The purpose of this study refers to the debate in the radio, to characterize and relate it to the pragma-dialetical theory, by van Eemeren e Grootendorst (1983/ 2004), especially by means of argumentation and speech acts. This theory considers the importance of the speech acts in argumentative discussions as well creates the notions of critical discussions and a code of conduct for reasonable discussants. In order to apply this theory, we select a corpus of radio transmitted discourse: a show named \"Liberdade de expressão\" from CBN, with Heródoto Barbeiro, Carlos Heitor Cony and Artur Xexéo.

Nesta dissertação observamos como atos de fala da classe dos diretivos se comportam em situações interacionais presentes em dois textos dramatúrgicos de Nelson Rodrigues, A Mulher sem Pecado (1993 [1941]) e Anti-Nelson Rodrigues (1993 [1973]) e quais as condições de felicidade foram necessárias para haver estas ocorrências. Como aporte teórico, utilizamos a Teoria dos Atos de Fala de John Searle (1981 [1969] e 2002 [1979]), usando, para tal, as condições de felicidade propostas em sua obra Os actos de fala (1981 [1969]) e as taxinomias apresentadas em seu segundo livro sobre a teoria, Expressão e Significado (2002 [1979]). Amparamos também nossa pesquisa nos estudos de Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni (1990; 1992; 1994 e 2006) no concernente aos processos interacionais, necessários para este trabalho. Nas interações analisadas, observamos o estabelecimento de tensões psicológicas cuja ocorrência se deu através da realização de atos de fala da classe dos diretivos (cf. Searle 2002 [1979]), atos estes, responsáveis pelo jogo de forças hierárquicas entre os interactantes que buscaram ocupar o posição alta da interação, como vemos nos Capítulos III e IV desta pesquisa. Os resultados obtidos foram satisfatórios, pois o autor apresenta marcas linguísticas enunciativas importantes em seus textos dramatúrgicos, deixando pistas relevantes para os atores quando de suas enunciações enunciadas e abre novos caminhos rumo à outras pesquisas acerca da verossimilhança enunciativa dos atuantes das artes cênicas, bem como proporciona aos estudos pragmáticos um novo campo de observações de fenômenos linguístico-enunciativo. / In this dissertation we observe how speech acts of the class of directors behave in interactional present situations in two dramaturgical texts of Nelson Rodrigues, The Woman without Sin (1993 [1941]) and Anti-Nelson Rodrigues (1993 [1973]) and the which conditions of happiness were required to occur on these events. As a theoretical framework we use the Theory of Speech Acts by John Searle (1981 [1969] and 2002 [1979]), using, for such happiness proposed conditions in his work The speech acts (1981 [1969]) and taxonomies presented in his second book on the theory, Expression and Meaning (2002 [1979]). also we admit on our research Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni\'s studies(1990, 1992, 1994 and 2006) regarding the interaction processes, that are needed for this paper. In the analyzed interactions, we observe the establishment of psychological tensions occurred by performing speech acts of the governing class (cf. Searle 2002 [1979]), these acts, responsible for the set of hierarchical power between interactants who sought to occupy the high position of the interaction, as we see in Chapters III and IV of this research. The results achieved were satisfactory, because the author presents important enunciative linguistic marks on their dramaturgical texts and left relevant clues for the actors when they set enunciations enuciated and open new ways towards other researches on the enunciative verisimilitude of active performing arts, as well as it provides to pragmatic studies a new field observations of enunciative linguistic phenomena.