Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are one of the principal driving forces in the development of an economy because of its significant contribution in terms of number of enterprises, employment, output and exports in most developing as well as developed countries. But SMEs, particularly in developing countries like India, face constraints in the functional areas of technology, finance, marketing and human resources. Moreover these SMEs have been exposed to intense international competition since early 1990s because of globalisation. However, globalisation, the process of continuing integration of the countries in the world has opened up new opportunities for SMEs of developing countries to cater to wider international markets which bring out the need for these SMEs to develop competitiveness for their survival as well as growth. Subcontracting relationship of SMEs with Large Enterprises (LEs) is an important source of access to technology and other infrastructural resources for SMEs of developing countries enabling them to develop their capabilities and become competitive. In the era of globalisation, Trans National Corporations (TNCs) are expanding their production facilities to developing countries for availing the advantages of productivity and distribution more than ever and India is no exception. These TNCs which concentrate on core operations and outsource non core activities offer better scope for local SMEs to have subcontracting relationship with them. Superior work culture of these TNCs would be reflected in their subcontracting relationships with local SME suppliers since TNCs place much emphasis on their value chain to be organised according to international standards. The key issue is whether Indian SMEs have entered into subcontracting relationship with TNCs and if so what is the nature of these subcontracting relationships? Does this relationship with the TNCs offer more scope for receiving assistance of various kinds for subcontracting SMEs? What is the extent and diversity of this TNC assistance? Given the quantum of assistance, does it facilitate the innovations and economic performance of SMEs? These questions have been addressed in the study with reference to subcontracting SMEs of three major TNCs in the Indian automobile industrya Japanese TNC, a German TNC and a Swedish TNCall the three being located in Bangalore, India. A theoretical framework for subcontracting relationship between TNCs and SMEs is proposed focusing on TNC assistance, SME innovations and economic performance, based on literature review. The study is based on an Ex Post Facto Exploratory research using primary data collected from a sample of 81 SME subcontractors selected from the list of first level suppliers provided by the three TNCs. The relevant data were collected using a structured questionnaire by visiting the firms and having personal interviews with entrepreneurs/senior managers of the firms. An assessment of nature of the SME subcontractors and their subcontracting relationships with TNCs revealed that these SME subcontractors of the three TNCs are in different stages of TNCSME subcontracting relationship. The Swedish TNCSME subcontracting relationships are in the initial stage, the Japanese TNCSME subcontracting relationships are in the growing stage and German TNCSME subcontracting relationships are in an enduring stage of the relationship. Therefore they are alternatively referred to as initial stage SME subcontractors, growing stage SME subcontractors and enduring stage SME subcontractors. The assistance a subcontracting SME received from its TNC customer was measured using 20 item variables under 7 dimensions of assistance related to product, production process, managerial know-how, marketing, human resource, financial and purchase process. A model to measure the degree of assistance was formulated with these 20 item variables for measuring the seven dimensions of assistance. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to establish the validity of the model. The degree of assistance was calculated as a single summated score for each case by summing up the composite scores of the seven dimensions of assistance calculated using weighted average method. The assistance provided to SME subcontractors was more in the case of German TNC than those of Japanese TNC and Swedish TNC. Even though there was evidence of assistance from TNCs to SME subcontractors, these SMEs received more of product related and purchase process assistance whereas assistance for their production process, managerial know-how, marketing, human resource, financial requirements was not very high. This implies that subcontracting relationship of Indian SMEs with TNCs is confined more to a mere purchase supply relationship where both the parties are concerned about the basic requirements of purchase supply relationship like detailed specifications, proper feedback on product performance, advance information about future orders, preferential pricing and proper payment. Innovation of the subcontracting SMEs was measured based on six dimensions of innovation, namely, new product developments, product modifications, process improvements, informal R&D/NPD expenditure, informal R&D/NPD employees and raw material selection. Firms were classified into two groups as high innovators and low innovators based on the innovation score calculated using the six dimensions. To probe the role of TNC assistance in the innovations of subcontracting SMEs, a logistic regression analysis was performed using the equation with degree of assistance, capital and labour as explanatory variables and innovation level as criterion variable. Our analysis revealed the positive role of assistance in the innovations of SMEs. However, the positive role of this assistance was found to be decreasing as focus of our analysis shifted from the initial stage SME subcontractors to the growing stage SME subcontractors and then to the enduring stage SME subcontractors even when the assistance they received increased from one stage to the other. SME subcontractors operating in the initial stage of the relationships, who in general lack technological competence, rely more and make more use of the assistance, even when the assistance itself is low, for their innovative performance. As the relationship gets older, the SMEs may be able to enhance their inhouse competence using the assistance from the TNC and may make more use of their own resources for innovations along with the assistance from TNCs. Therefore, as SME firms begin to use more of their inhouse resources for their innovations, it is likely that the role of TNC assistance for SME innovations would decrease. Increasing positive role of labour for SME innovations as the relationship shifted from initial to enduring stages substantiate the argument of increasing utilisation of inhouse resources for innovations as relationship prolongs over a period of time. A comparative analysis of the economic performance of SME subcontractors revealed that the German subcontractors were having more labour productivity and value added to value of output and low capital productivity whereas Swedish subcontractors were having high capital productivity and low labour productivity and value of added to value of output compared to other two. In order to probe the role of degree of assistance on the economic performance of SMEs, a regression analysis was performed using the equation with degree of assistance, capital and labour as explanatory variables and value addition as criterion variable. The results revealed the contributory role of TNC assistance in the economic performance of subcontracting SMEs but this contributory role of assistance was found to be decreasing even when the assistance itself is increasing whereas the contribution of labour increased, as our analysis shifted from the initial stage to the growing and then to the enduring stage of relationships. The extent of assistance might be low at the initial stage of the relationship but the small and young SME subcontractors who in general, lack technological competence might be able to make more use of this assistance since the assistance from TNCs would be one of their major sources for technical upgradation and growth. As the relationship prolongs both contracting and subcontracting firms may rely on trust and build up close relationship which would enable the SMEs to enhance their sales to the TNC and receive more assistance. At the same time, some of the SMEs might even strengthen their inhouse resources due to TNC assistance which in turn could be further used for their economic performance. This could be the reason for the decreasing contributory role of assistance and increasing contributory role of labour for the economic performance of subcontracting SMEs as our analysis moved to more enduring relationships. Further analysis using other regression models revealed that the firms, which received more assistance from the TNC customers utilised labour more efficiently than firms which received lesser assistance. TNC assistance was found to be an important factor for the enhancement of labour productivity of subcontracting SMEs, especially for young and small firms operating in the initial stage of the relationship. The subcontracting SMEs were able to make use of the innovations which they could carry out with TNC assistance for their economic performance. Quantile regression analysis, performed to have a more comprehensive picture of the effect of degree of assistance on economic performance, revealed that that for SMEs having average factor productivities, the assistance from TNCs contributed less to their economic performance relative to those SMEs which had low and high factor productivities, respectively. Moreover, SMEs which had high factor productivities were able to make more use of their innovations for their economic performance. These findings clearly show that the TNC assistance enables subcontracting SMEs to enhance their innovations and economic performance. Initially, the SME subcontractors might receive less assistance but these SMEs who in general, have limited resources may make more use of this assistance for better performance and enhancing their internal capabilities. As the subcontracting relationship endures over a period of time, subcontracting SMEs would be able to enhance their performance and develop their internal resources which in turn could be further used for their performance. If that is so, even when the SMEs are able to receive more assistance from TNCs and deliver higher performance, the contribution of this assistance for their performance would decrease. Thus this diminishing role of assistance from TNCs in the economic performance of subcontracting SMEs supports the fact that SME subcontractors are able to improve their internal capabilities and competitiveness through long term subcontracting relationships with TNCs. An assessment of the relative importance of SME factors which encourage subcontracting of the SMEs with TNCs indicated that inhouse R&D efforts and technological capability, frequent and proper communication, financial stability, skilled manpower, reputation of the subcontracting firm etc. are the most important factors, indicating the importance of inhouse/internal resources of the subcontracting firms. An assessment of the factors with respect to improvement needed for these SMEs revealed that the entrepreneurs/managers of the SMEs had realised the need to improve their inhouse resources and develop their technological capabilities with enhanced skilled manpower and better machinery. Given the importance of internal resources of SMEs for forging subcontracting relationships with TNCs, Indian SMEs need to place utmost priority for enhancing their own technical and manpower resources. Results of our study underlines the need for a policy thrust to expand the coverage of subcontracting involving local SMEs with domestic economy based global TNCs. The promotion of linkages of SMEs with TNCs depends on two factors: (i) the availability of local SMEs who have the prerequisite capabilities in terms of quality, delivery and cost and (ii) availability of information of such SMEs and their capabilities for TNCs. This context calls for the simultaneous strategy of competitiveness enhancement of local SMEs to the required level and providing information about the available capabilities of SMEs to TNCs.

published_or_final_version / Real Estate and Construction / Master / Master of Science in Construction Project Management

Le thème de la sécurité invite généralement à aborder les pratiques de travail dans les industries à risques à partir des règles. Cette thèse décale le questionnement vers l’analyse d’une activité non explicitée dans une organisation formelle : l’entretien des installations. Un collectif diffus se forme sur cette base ; il unit plusieurs collectifs situés, définis à partir de l’organisation sans s’y restreindre. L’entretien consiste à rattraper un fonctionnement productif qui échappe continuellement à toute emprise, en raison de la dégradation matérielle des installations et des contraintes de flux tendu. Dans une ambiance d’urgence, les travailleurs essayent d’éviter les accidents et l’arrêt de la production, intriqués et toujours latents. Ils régulent leurs coopérations en essayant d’avoir prise à la fois sur les machines, sur leurs trajectoires professionnelles et, par là, sur la composition des collectifs. Parallèlement, les procédures de sécurité relèvent d’un dispositif bureaucratique plus large, à la fois insaisissable et omniprésent. Au nom de la « sécurité », ce dernier est censé concilier une production en flux tendu avec la prévention des accidents par un contrôle de la main-d’œuvre. Il intervient en pratique comme repère mais surtout en tant que menace : incapables de mesurer les écarts entre la réalité et la prescription, les travailleurs redoutent d’être mis en cause en cas d’accident. Les démarches de participation censées améliorer ce dispositif ne permettent pas de faire valoir le caractère incontrôlable des machines. Les membres du collectif diffus évitent alors de participer pour minimiser l’emprise hiérarchique sur l’ordre social construit en interne. / The theme of security generally invites to consider work practices in hazard industries from the point of view of rules. This thesis shifts the questioning towards the analysis of a non-explicit activity in a formal organization: the maintenance of facilities. A diffuse collective is formed on this basis; it units several sited collectives, defined from the organization without being restricted to it. The maintenance consist in catching up an efficient operation that constantly escapes beyond any control, due to material deterioration of facilities and to just-in-time constraints. In an urgency atmosphere, the workers try to avoid accidents and production arrests, intricately linked and always latent. They regulate their cooperation by trying to gain control on machines and on their own career paths, and thus on the composition of collectives. In parallel, security procedures relate to a larger bureaucratic apparatus, which is both elusive and omnipresent. On behalf of « security », this latest is supposed to conciliate just-in-time production with accident prevention through a control of workforces. It intervenes in practice as a benchmark but mainly as a threat: workers, unable to measure the deviations from reality to requirements, fear to be charged in case of accident. Participative actions supposed to improve this apparatus do not allow emphasizing the uncontrollable nature of machines. The members of the diffuse collective thus avoid participating in order to minimize the hierarchical hold on the in-house-built social order.

The aim of the research was to assess what competitive advantage a Removals company could expect to gain by outsourcing its driver function to owner drivers. An extensive literature review identified key outsourcing issues. The literature was related to a case study of Stuttaford Van Lines (SVL), a company that is experiencing problems with its current independent contractor driver arrangements and that needs to review its outsourcing decision. In order to learn from best practice in the field of outsourcing to owner drivers, a benchmarking exercise was undertaken at South African Breweries (SAB). The benchmarking exercise identified six key issues that contributed to the success of the SAB owner driver scheme. These points, together with others identified from the literature, were integrated into a recommended outsourcing implementation process for SVL. The research found that it is possible for SVL to outsource the driver function to owner drivers and that such a scheme can be expected to improve customer service levels. The success of the scheme will depend on the selection of the drivers and how effectively it is managed. It was found that it would not be profitable for SVL to outsource to owner drivers using the compensation model proposed. Cost reduction is however only one of the factors to consider in an outsourcing decision.

From the Polanyian perspective on the double movement of labour commodification and self-protection of Society, the aim of this study was to examine how unionists perceive and problematise precarious employment and what are their practices for unionising and thereby securing precarious workers. A double case study was conducted in the hotel-restaurant and construction sectors in Sweden with the participation of blue-collar unionists with diverse backgrounds and experiences. The results show that precarious work is associated with labour market segmentation, subcontracting and fragmentation of economic organisations, deskilling of work, loss of autonomy and sometimes over-qualification of workers. Perceived difficulties for unionisation are fear, lack of knowledge of precarious workers about their rights, membership cost, status frustration and lack of interactions with other workers. Reported practices for unionising precarious workers consist of dealing with these barriers in order to build trustful relations and empowering workers through education and inclusion in leadership positions. Actions taken to protect and secure precarious workers are strongly interlinked with their unionisation and seem to rest mainly on negotiations. The main conclusions of the study are that precarious work means a loss of control by workers over their work life stemming from labour commodification and flexibilisation due to increased management control and lack of rights and protections surrounding work. The formation of solidarities needed for unionisation is hindered by the detachment of precarious workers from the work community and by inequality regimes. The domination of fear manifests the prevalence of emotions. Therefore, the care and emotional work of unionists is essential for making workers feel confidence. Unions practices tend to lean also, to some extent, towards organising and community building models. Thereby, union agency appears to be able to engage in an interplay with structures to exert some influence on employment and industrial relations.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Changes in the global salt market have presented Walvis Bay Salt Refiners with an opportunity to increase its current sales by approximately 40%. Following several pre-feasibility studies, the expansion project plan was created. The construction of new ponds, canals and sluices were to be performed by a subcontractor as selected through a tender process. The scope of the work comprised approximately 70% of the total project cost and it also represented the most critical part of the expansion project. Thomas Saaty’s Analytic Hierarchy Process, was used as a group decision support system for the selection of the most suitable subcontractor. The weighted average mean method was used to aggregate individual scores. A sensitivity analysis was performed following the final outcome to gain a deeper understanding of the problem, obtain a measure of margin between subcontractor scores and to check for the correctness of numbers. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Veranderinge in die wêreld soutmark het vir Walvis Bay Salt Refiners 'n geleentheid gebied om sy verkope met ʼn beraamde 40% te verhoog. Na verskeie voorondersoeke is 'n volledige projekplan opgestel. Die vervaardiging van damwalle, kanale en sluise sou deur 'n kontrakteur gedoen word wat deur ʼn tenderprosedure gekeur sou word. Die omvang van hierdie gedeelte van die uitbreidingsprojek verteenwoordig ongeveer 70% van die totale projekkostes en is terselfdelyk die mees sensitiewe gedeelte van die projek. Thomas Saaty se Analytic Hierarchy Process is gebruik as die groepbesluitnemingsondersteuningstelsel om die mees geskikte kontrakteur te kies. Die geweegde gemiddelde is gebruik om die individuele oordele saam te voeg. Sensitiwiteits analise is uitgevoer nadat die finale uitslag bepaal is om sodoende beter insig in die probleem te ontwikkel, om ʼn beter onderskeiding tussen die kontrakteur puntetellings te kry en om die juistheid van die syfers na te gaan.

À partir de l’analyse des relations interentreprises dans le secteur du bâtiment, cette thèse interroge les difficultés de coopération et de création de règles communes sur un chantier de construction.Ce travail porte sur un sujet important, au regard à la fois du poids économique de l’objet de recherche empirique et des enjeux contemporains du travail en réseau, du recours à la sous-traitance et à des travailleurs détachés. Cette thèse propose une lecture originale de la sécurité au travail, en déplaçant le regard de la conception duale de la sécurité réglée et gérée vers un processus de sécurisation des actions. Son principal apport est de montrer ce qu’est « agir en sécurité » : il ne s’agit pas seulement d’appliquer des procédures affichées ou de respecter des règles mises en action mais surtout de régulation entre une pluralité de sources normatives.Ce travail s’appuie sur la théorie de la régulation sociale. Initialement conçus pour analyser des organisations de type taylorienne, ces outils conceptuels se sont révélés pertinents pour étudier des organisations en réseau de sous-traitance. Ainsi, nous avons décrit les relations de travail, en particulier la sous-traitance et la cotraitance et les effets de ces relations sur la coopération au travail en matière de sécurité. L’objectif est de proposer une réflexion sur les transformations de l’organisation des régulations de la sécurité du et au travail et sur la place de la sous-traitance dans ce processus. Autrement dit, c’est uneréflexion sur la forme des liens sociaux qui participent à la sécurité, à l’action collective en situation de travail en réseaux. / This thesis addresses the difficulties of cooperation and the elaboration of common rules between multiple firms that work on a same construction yard.This work focuses on an important topic, considering both the economic approach brought by of the empirical research subject and the contemporary issues with network firms, outsourcing organizations and posted workers.This thesis proposes an original approach of workplace safety, by shifting the focus from the dual concept of regulated and managed security to a process of safety control actions.The main contribution of this study concerns the process of "acting safe": which is not only about applying and creating procedures or rules but also about control between a set of normative bodies. This thesis relies on the theory of social regulation and control. This theory was originally built to analyze Taylorist-type organizations, and it has proved its effectiveness in studyingnetworked outsourcing organizations. These conceptual tools have proved to be relevant for studying network firms and outsourcing organizations.Thus, we have described the work coordination and cooperation, between firms that are related with subcontracting and co-contracting commitment. The target is to evaluate safety.The purpose is to propose a system thinking approach of safety control at work within a set outsourcing company.In other words, this study aims to describe forms of social links that contribute to safety at a workplace.

Na construção civil dois agentes são os responsáveis pela materialização das obras. O primeiro deles são as construtoras. Porém, a maior parte dos trabalhos nos canteiros de obras é delegada a empresas executoras de serviços de obras (EES), ou subempreiteiras, o segundo de tais agentes; em uma prática conhecida como subcontratação. Quando as EES possuem recursos e competências, ou ativos, que lhes permitem executar adequadamente os seus serviços, caracterizam um subconjunto de EES. Este subconjunto é denominado empresas de execução especializada de serviços de obras (EEE). Adicionalmente, no Brasil, a maioria das EES são micro e pequenas empresas, e muitas delas carecem dos ativos adequados para desempenhar os seus serviços. Para piorar esta situação, as EES são maiormente contratadas em condições desfavoráveis, tanto comerciais quanto na produção. Complementarmente, os resultados do setor da construção civil são produzidos por diferentes agentes que atuam nos sistemas de produção da construção, dos quais também dependem os resultados das EES. Não obstante, alguns agentes, principalmente as construtoras, contribuem com as EES, ajudandoas a obterem melhores resultados. Contudo, seus resultados, como os da construção civil no geral, não são os melhores, afetando a competitividade do setor. Dada a sua função nas obras, para melhorar o setor, precisa-se de EEE. O objetivo desta tese é discutir estratégias para desenvolver empresas de execução especializada de serviços de obras. Para tanto 56 entrevistas foram realizadas usando o método de teoria fundamentada em dados (Grounded Theory). Os resultados desta tese dizem respeito à descoberta dos processos de Habilitação e Acondicionamento dos sistemas de produção. Mediante tais processos se habilitam ativos e condições adequadas para os agentes, entre eles as EES, alcançarem o melhor desempenho dos seus papéis nos sistemas de produção da construção civil. Com base em tais processos, são propostas oito estratégias para desenvolver EEE. O desenvolvimento de melhores ativos e condições, bem como o seu acondicionamento nos sistemas de produção da construção civil foram identificados como fontes de melhoria para o setor. / In Construction Industry two agents are responsible for the realization of onsite works. The first of these are contractors. However, most of the work at construction sites is delegated to trade contractors (EES), or subcontractors, the second of such agents, in a practice known as subcontracting. When EES have the resources and skills, or assets that allow them to properly perform their services, they feature a subset of ESS. This subset is called specialty contractors (EEE). Additionally, in Brazil, most of the EES are micro and small enterprises, and many of them lack the adequate assets to perform their services. Compounding this, the EES are most mainly engaged in unfavorable conditions, both commercial and in production. In addition, the results of the construction sector are produced by different agents working in the construction production systems, from which the results of the EES also depend on. However, some agents, especially the contractors, contribute to the EES, helping them to achieve better results. However, their results, such as construction in general, are not the best, affecting the sector\'s competitiveness. Given its role in the works to improve the sector, EEE are needed. The objective of this thesis is to discuss strategies to develop specialty contractors. For this purpose 56 interviews were conducted using Grounded Theory method. The results of this thesis concern the discovery of Enabling and Conditioning processes of production systems. Such processes enable adequate assets and conditions for agents, including the EES, achieve the best performance of their roles in the construction production systems. Based on these processes ten strategies are proposed to develop EEE. The development of better assets and conditions as well as their conditioning in construction production systems have been identified as sources of improvement for the sector.

Cette thèse étudie les mobilisations contre les risques du travail dans l’industrie nucléaire en France entre 1968 et 2018. Elle éclaire la dynamique des actions syndicales et des processus d’alertes internes aux exploitants nucléaires. L’enquête s’articule autour de deux séquences impulsées respectivement depuis le Commissariat à l’énergie atomique (CEA) et l’entreprise Électricité de France (EDF).La controverse autour des conditions de travail dans l’industrie nucléaire et du recours à des salariés d’entreprises sous-traitantes pour les opérations les plus exposées aux dangers de la radioactivité remonte aux années 1970. Elle ne cesse, depuis cette époque pionnière, de revenir sur le devant de la scène, sans toutefois susciter d’action publique à même de résoudre les problèmes soulevés. Cette controverse est alimentée par les enquêtes menées directement par les travailleurs de ce secteur et certains de leurs représentants syndicaux de la CFDT et de la CGT, avec le relais de médecins du travail, de scientifiques, de journalistes d’investigation et d’élus politiques. La thèse décrit les activités de problématisation du travail et du recours à la sous-traitance dans le nucléaire et rend compte de leur infélicité récurrente. Elle entend contribuer à mieux comprendre la faible visibilité sociale des enjeux de santé au travail et, plus largement, les processus d’émergence de publics mobilisés en démocratie et les logiques qui leur font obstacle.La démarche est d’ethnographie historique. Elle combine des observations et des entretiens, avec une plongée dans les archives. Elle étudie l’expérience du travail exposé aux risques dans cette industrie, la constitution du problème de la santé au travail sur différentes scènes, les parcours de personnes affectées ou concernées par ce problème et les phases successives de sa dynamique de publicisation et de confinement. / This thesis studies the mobilizations against occupational risks in the French nuclear industry between 1968 and 2018. It sheds light on the dynamics of trade union actions and warning processes among the nuclear operators. The survey focuses on two episodes fostered by the Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique for the first one, and by the company Électricité de France (EDF) for the second one.In the 1970's, a controversy arose about working conditions in nuclear industry and the using of employees of subcontracting companies for the operations that were most exposed to radioactive hazards. Since then, it has been constantly re-appearing but has never generated public action able to solve the problem. Surveys done directly by workers of this industry and some of their union representatives (of the CFDT and CGT trade unions) contribute to this controversy. They find support from labour doctors, scientists, investigative journalists, and elected politicians. The thesis describes the processes of problematization of labour and recourse to subcontractors in nuclear industry. It depicts its recurring failures. It helps understanding why the issues in occupational health do not gain more social visibility and, more broadly, how do mobilized publics emerge in democracies and which kind of hurdles does this emergence have to face.Historical ethnography is the chosen approach. It combines observations, interviews and work in the archives. It studies the experience of working with the radioactive hazards in this industry, the formation of the public issue of occupational health in several landscapes, life paths of affected or involved persons. It sheds light on the dynamics of the problem, that is gradually publicized and then confined.

Par ce travail de recherche, nous tâchons de mettre à jour les dynamiques qui sous-tendent la relation entre syndicalistes et travailleurs d'un secteur de production de services tel que le nettoyage industriel. Ce secteur, désormais le plus souvent externalisé, emploie une main-d’œuvre majoritairement féminine et souvent d’origine immigrée. Ce n’est pourtant pas entièrement un « désert syndical », ce qui justifie une analyse fine des pratiques syndicales de ce secteur. Par la comparaison internationale, nous avons ciblé les interactions qui se déploient au niveau des structures territoriales de la bourse du travail pour la CGT de Marseille et de la Camera del Lavoro pour à la CGIL de Bologne. En particulier, une approche basée sur l'observation directe et sur le concept de stratégie syndicale nous a permis d'analyser trois pratiques syndicales, le suivi individuel, l'action collective et les assemblées. Des dynamiques de fonctionnement variées, ainsi que les différentes sources de légitimité des organisations syndicales, conduisent à parler de syndicalismeS au pluriel, plutôt que de syndicalisme. / The current research project aims to analyze the relation between cleaning workers and labor unions based on the comparative international approach. The cleaning sector mainly employs immigrant female workforce, and many of them work under, subcontracting. Although this sector is characterized by a weak labor-union presence, however labor-unions exist, and they have constant relations with cleaning workers. Therefore, the current research project highlights the importance of taking into account trade union practices, and studies more in details the interaction between union activists and cleaning workers. For the purpose of the analysis, we performed participant observation studies at the local structures of the CGT in (Marseille) and CGIL in (Bologna). The participant observation was focused on the concept of union strategies which helped us to identify three main union practices: (individual monitoring (suivi individuel), strikes, and meetings). The results show that different modes of union practices lead us to define the concept labor-unionismS in the plural form, rather than in the singular form.