Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The main alternative of pig slurry discard is its disposition in the soil as source of nutrients for plants. However, copper and zinc accumulation in the soil has been increasing significantly and may become an environmental pollutant problem. The objective of this work was to evaluate copper and zinc potential pollutant in areas with successive applications of pig slurry through zinc and copper forms and accumulations in the soil, and their transference by surface runoff and percolation flow. The work was carried out in the experimental area of the Department of Agricultural Engineering of the Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria (RS), Brazil. Typic Hapludalf soil was used and four rates of pig slurry (0, 20, 40, and 80 m3 ha-1) were applied on the soil surface presenting a total of 17 applications. In October 2006, the soil samples were collected in the depths of 0 - 2, 2 - 4, 4 - 6, 6 - 8; 8 - 10, 10 - 12, 12 - 14, 14 - 16, 16 - 18, 18 - 20, 20 - 25, 25 - 30, 30 - 35, 35 - 40, 40 - 50, and 50 - 60 cm. After collect, total contents in the pig slurry, as well as total contents and extracted contents by HCl 0.1 mol L-1 of copper and zinc in soil were analyzed. Soil samples (0 and 80 m3 ha-1 pig slurry) and dry pig slurry samples were collected and copper and zinc sequential extraction analyzed. Water volume and sediment losses were determined. Moreover, copper and zinc forms in samples of solutions transferred by surface runoff and percolation flow collected during the cycle of the corn (2006/07) in each event (rain + surface runoff) were determined. Successive applications of pig slurry increased the total content of copper and zinc extracted by HCl 0.1 mol L-1 in soil (superficial layers). These metals tended to be transferred to deeper layers of soil and to other environment compartment. The sequential extraction in soil where 80 m3 ha-1 pig slurry was applied showed an increase in the copper and zinc contents in the soil samples of the superficial layers when extracted with water deionization, MgCl2, HNO3 + H2O2, and NH2OHHCl, which represent soluble forms, exchangeable forms, mineral fraction forms, and organic matter forms, respectively. The findings showed an increase in the copper and zinc bioavailable forms. Losses by surface runoff were the main form of transferring copper and zinc, especially in treatments with successive applications of pig slurry. / A principal alternativa para o descarte do dejeto líquido de suínos é sua disposição no solo como fonte de nutrientes às plantas. Porém, a constatação do acúmulo de cobre e zinco no solo vem causando preocupação com relação à segurança ambiental. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar o potencial contaminante do cobre e do zinco em área com aplicações sucessivas de dejeto líquido de suínos, através do acúmulo e das formas do cobre e do zinco no solo e suas transferências por escoamento superficial e percolação. O trabalho foi desenvolvido na área experimental do Departamento de Engenharia Agrícola na Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, RS. As doses de dejeto líquido de suínos foram 0, 20, 40 e 80 m3 ha-1, sendo realizadas 17 aplicações de dejetos até o momento da coleta do solo em outubro de 2006, num Argissolo Vermelho Arênico distrófico. As camadas de solo amostradas foram as seguintes: 0 - 2; 2 - 4; 4 - 6; 6 - 8; 8 - 10; 10 - 12; 12 - 14; 14 - 16; 16 - 18; 18 - 20; 20 - 25; 25 - 30; 30 - 35-; 35 - 40; 40 - 50 e 50 - 60 cm de profundidade. Foram determinados os teores totais e extraídos com HCl 0,1 mol L-1 de Cu e Zn no solo e os teores totais nos dejetos. Foi realizada a extração seqüencial de Cu e Zn onde não foi aplicado dejeto e onde foi aplicado 80 m3 ha-1, bem como na fração seca do dejeto. Determinou-se o volume de água e sedimentos transferidos e as formas de Cu e Zn em amostras de soluções transferidas por escoamento superficial e percolação durante o ciclo do milho, ano agrícola 2006/07, em cada evento (chuva + escoamento superficial). As aplicações sucessivas de dejeto líquido de suínos promoveram aumentos nos teores totais de Cu e Zn e extraídos por HCl 0,1 mol L-1 nas camadas superficiais do solo, com tendência de transferência para camadas mais profundas do solo e para outros compartimentos do ambiente. A extração seqüencial em solo onde foi aplicado 80m3 ha-1 de dejeto mostrou que nas camadas superficiais do solo, ocorreu um incremento nos teores de Cu e Zn extraídos com os extratores água deionizada, MgCl2, HNO3 + H2O2 e NH2OHHCl, que representam, respectivamente, as formas solúveis, trocáveis, ligadas à fração mineral e à matéria orgânica do solo. Isso evidencia que houve um aumento das formas consideradas biodisponíveis de Cu e Zn no solo. Com relação às transferências, se observou que a principal forma de transferência de cobre e zinco do solo foi à solução escoada superficialmente, onde foram significativas as transferências de cobre e zinco nos tratamentos com aplicações sucessivas de dejeto.

L'objectif de cette thèse est d'analyser la façon dont les pratiques picturales des Andes coloniales se nouent et se dénouent autour d'une « matière » européenne. La nature d'un tableau répond à des exigences politiques occidentales (l'évangélisation des Indigènes) mais sa fonction va progressivement être démembrée au profit d'une peinture qui s'américanise.C'est d'abord en étudiant le contexte artistique de l'Europe des XVIe et XVIIe siècles, ses pratiques ainsi que ses transferts humains et matériels dans la vice-royauté péruvienne que l'on peut par la suite juger des différences, des nouveautés, mais aussi des transgressions des oeuvres produites sur place, la dimension régionale étant l'un des premiers facteurs de ces changements. Les médiateurs de cette circulation, acteurs sociaux et vecteurs de nouveaux codes, redéfinissent les qualités du peintre indien qui met un terme définitif à sa condition de « main d'oeuvre » pour devenir un artiste indépendant.Alors que tout porterait à croire que l'Espagne refuse l'américanisation de cette peinture, les fondements théoriques de l'art occidental sont pourtant à l'origine de formes et de thèmes nouveaux qui caractérisent essentiellement le XVIIIe siècle andin. L'adoption d'un système iconographique européen par des peintres principalement métis et indiens permet paradoxalement la réappropriation d'un support longtemps utilisé comme un objet de domination, de soumission et de contrôle de la part des autorités espagnoles. / This thesis aims to analyse the way pictorial practices of the colonial Andes are formed and dissolved around a “European matter”. The nature of a painting complies with occidental political requirements (the evangelisation of the Indigenous) but its function will be progressively “dismembered” in favour of a painting which is becoming Americanised.The regional dimension being one of the factors of these changes, we will first study the artistic context of Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. Through the study of its practices and also its human and material transfers in the Peruvian viceroyalty, we can thereafter judge of the differences, the innovations, but also the transgressions of the artworks made on site. The mediators of this circulation, the social actors and the carriers of new codes, redefine the qualities of the Indian painter who put a definitive end to his condition of “labour” to become an independent artist.While we could be led to believe that Spain refuses the Americanisation of this form of painting, yet the theoretical foundations of Western art are at the starting point of forms and new themes which essentially characterise Andean’s 18th century. The adoption of a European iconographic system, mostly by mixed-race and Indian painters, paradoxically allows the reapropriation of a medium used for a long time by the Spanish authorities, as an object of domination, submission, and control.

Esta dissertação analisa os motivos da implantação do novo sistema de pagamentos brasileiro, descreve os impactos percebidos junto à sociedade e avalia o atual estágio do projeto. Procura mostrar que não houve redução de risco sistêmico, como se pretendia, em função da implantação do novo sistema de pagamentos. Também evidencia que não houve redução de tarifas bancárias com a implantação do mesmo. Descreve que, em função da redução de custos financeiros percebidos com a utilização de avanços tecnológicos, os bancos passaram a apropriar-se dos ganhos em função da forma como foi elaborado o novo sistema, não foi possível identificar qualquer redução de preço nas tarifas bancárias em função de uma maior concorrência. / This dissertation analyzes the motives of the implementation of the new system of Brazilian payments, describes the impacts perceived into the society and evaluates the current stage of the project. The study showed that there was neither reduction of systemic risk nor banking fees after the implementation of the new system of payments. It describes that banks kept the earnings acquired from of the reduction of financial costs perceived with the utilization of technological advancements. The way the new system was setup prevented an identification of any reduction of banking tariffs because of increased market competition.

C. D. Friedrich est le plus souvent présenté, dans l’historiographie traditionnelle, comme un peintre oublié durant les décennies qui ont suivi sa mort à Dresde, en 1840. Peu connu en dehors de son Allemagne natale, il n’aurait été redécouvert que grâce à cette grande rétrospective de l’art allemand que fut la Berliner Jahrhundert Ausstellung de 1906. La première biographie du XXe siècle que lui consacre l’historien norvégien Andreas Aubert, Dieu, liberté, patrie (Gott, Freiheit, Vaterland, 1915) attire l’attention sur l’orientation politique et patriotique de certaines de ses peintures. Cette thèse propose de reconsidérer divers aspects de la réception de l’œuvre du peintre, en la plaçant, non plus dans le seul contexte allemand mais dans celui, européen, du XIXe siècle. Si Friedrich a été longtemps méconnu des historiens d’art, il devint, de par sa culture poméranienne germano-scandinave, une référence aux yeux d’artistes scandinaves, qui entrèrent personnellement en contact avec lui ou par l’intermédiaire de son voisin d’atelier, le peintre norvégien J C. C. Dahl. Sujet d’intenses débats, non exempts de considérations politiques, la peinture de paysage est également devenue un enjeu patriotique en Allemagne et dans les pays scandinaves. L’objectif est de préciser la place de l’esthétique de Friedrich dans l’instauration de traditions picturales nordiques, au-delà des affinités et résonances pouvant unir les œuvres entre elles. Le suivi de cette trajectoire, passant par les pays nordiques et parvenant en France, permet également de relancer la question de la réception de Friedrich dans les milieux artistiques français, où il n’a pas exposé. / According to traditional historiography, Caspar David Friedrich was almost forgotten during several decades following his death in Dresden in 1840. Little known outside his native Germany, it is often said that he was rediscovered through the great retrospective of German nineteenth century art, the Berliner Jahrhundertausstellung, in 1906. The first biography of the artist published in the twentieth century, God, Freedom, Fatherland (Gott, Freiheit, Vaterland, 1915) by the Norwegian art historian, Andreas Aubert, draws attention on the patriotic orientation of some of his paintings. This thesis proposes to discuss different aspects of the reception of his oeuvre, not only in the German, but in the European context of the 19th century. If the painter was not recognized by the historians, he emerged, mainly thanks to his German-scandinavian Pomeranian culture, as a model among Scandinavian artists, who came largely through personal contact with Friedrich himself or via his neighbour and friend, the Norwegian painter J. C. C. Dahl. In the heart of intense debates in Germany and Scandinavia, landscape painting became a subject of political interest. This thesis is pointing the heritage of Friedrich aesthetics in the birth of Nordic painting traditions, beyond resonances and visual affinities between works. Following this itinerary through Nordic countries, reaching France, permits to question again the reception of Friedrich in French artistic milieux, where he never was on public display.

Cette thèse s’est interrogée principalement sur le lien entre l’entraide familiale et la fécondité en contexte de pauvreté. Elle a donc mis en relief l’impact sur la fécondité des changements des comportements des ménages vis-à-vis de l’entraide familiale. Nous avons tenté d’identifier les facteurs de la baisse de la fécondité observée au Cameroun, et de discuter l’idée selon laquelle un affaiblissement du système de l’entraide familiale serait un déterminant de la fécondité. Entre autres, nous avons cherché aussi à relever les transformations subies par les ménages camerounais (configuration et composition), dues à l’impact de la pauvreté sur leurs organisations. En guise de résultats, outre le début d’un affaiblissement du système d’entraide familiale, d’autres facteurs tels que la baisse de la mortalité infanto-juvénile, etc., expliquent la baisse de la fécondité au Cameroun. Si l’on observe donc une persistance de l’entraide familiale au Cameroun malgré la pauvreté, notons néanmoins une montée en puissance de la nucléarisation de la famille qui se traduit par une préférence d’aider ses proches à distance au travers du soutien financier, au lieu de les avoir près de soi à travers la cohabitation. / This thesis wondered mainly about the link between the family mutual aid and the fertility in context of poverty. Thus she accentuated the impact on the fertility of the changes of the behavior of the households towards the family mutual aid. We tried to identify the factors of the reduction in the fertility observed in Cameroon, and tu discuss the idea according to which a weakening of the system of the family mutual aid would be a determiner of fertility. Among others, we also looked to raise the transformations undergone by the Cameroonian households (configuration and composition), due the impact of the poverty on their organizations. By way of results, besides the beginning of a weakening of the system of family mutual aid, other factors such as the reduction in the infanto-young mortality, etc., explain the reduction of the fertylity in Cameroon. If we thus observe an obstinacy of the family mutual aid in Cameroon in spite of the poverty, let us note nevertheless an increase in importance of the nuclearization of family which is translated by a preference to help his remote relations through the financial support, instead of having them near one through the cohabitation.

Since its inception, Israel has wrestled with attempts by adversaries to keep her politically isolated in the international arena. To garner more friends and expand diplomatic reach, Israeli leaders initiated a strategy of sharing specialized knowledge with other nations. The technologies and knowledge shared were based on the experience gained from Israel’s distinctive security and developmental struggles. The transfer of technology developed into a foreign policy instrument in Israel’s overall international relations. Technical cooperation became part of a broader foreign relations drive that sought to deliver greater diplomatic recognition for Israel. This strategy, which continues to present times, was born mostly out of two major necessities for the young struggling state. The first, to boost Israel’s political stature in international forums. The second, to counterbalance efforts by Israel’s rivals to keep the Jewish State isolated in the Middle East and the rest of the world. In the early years of the initiative, the technology transfers were mostly confined in fields related to agriculture and the military. In more recent years, the rise of Israel’s hi-tech industry has attracted worldwide attention creating new opportunities for Israeli foreign policymakers to widen the scope of technologies to be offered as part of international partnerships. The dissertation examines the interplay of technology/knowledge transfers as a source of soft power for Israel in efforts to advance relationships even with seemingly unlikely partner nations. It explores the usefulness of know-how sharing in the making, growing and maintaining Israel’s relationships with two influential Asian countries. The study considers the multiple factors including the convergence of interests as drivers of Israel’s ties to India and China in both secretive and open relationships. Over the span of five decades, the Jewish State’s international cooperation efforts have grown in scope of expertise in areas like agriculture, defense, anti-terrorist training, and disaster relief. The study explores the weight of Israel’s technology transfers as tools of diplomacy in terms of propping up trade ties, gaining more favorable policies towards Israel in the context of the conflict with Palestinians and boosting bilateral exchanges in the form of official visits and treaties.

À différentes échelles de temps, le but de ma thèse a été de comprendre l'évolution des virus entomopathogènes à travers l’étude de la diversification et de l’adaptation génomique de grands virus à ADN d’insectes. Dans un premier temps, j’ai pu estimer les âges de diversifications des baculovirus et des nudivirus, et proposer un scénario de coévolution à long terme entre ces virus et leurs hôtes insectes. Puis, me plaçant sur une échelle de temps moindre, j’ai montré que les hôtes insectes sont le facteur principal de la diversification des baculovirus, et de façon surprenante, j’ai également observé que l'environnement biotique de ces virus, c’est-à-dire les plantes hôtes des insectes, joue un rôle central dans leur évolution. Dans un second temps, des mutations ponctuelles ont pu être reliées à l’adaptation locale de populations différentiées du baculovirus SeMNPV. Enfin, l’étude de l'adaptation génomique convergente entre les entomopoxvirus et les baculovirus a mis en évidence que les transferts horizontaux de gènes sont une source importante de variabilité pour les grands virus à ADN, pour l'adaptation aux mêmes niches écologiques. Les gènes et les mécanismes identifiés dans ce travail de thèse apportent des éléments nouveaux pour comprendre comment les génomes sont façonnés par l’écologie. / At different timescales, the purpose of my PhD was to understand insect virus evolution through the study of the genomic diversification and adaptation of insect large DNA viruses. Firstly, I was able to estimate the ages of baculovirus and nudivirus diversifications, and to propose a long-term coevolutionary scenario between these viruses and their insect hosts. Then, on a narrower timescale, I showed that insect hosts are the major factor in baculovirus diversification, and surprisingly, I also observed that the virus biotic environment, i.e. insect host plants, plays a central role in their evolution. Secondly, punctual mutations have been linked to the local adaptation of differentiated populations of the baculovirus SeMNPV. Finally, the study of convergent genomic adaptation between entomopoxviruses and baculoviruses highlighted that horizontal gene transfers are an important source of variability for large DNA viruses, for the adaption to the same ecological niches. Genes and mechanisms identified in this PhD work provide new insights to understand how genomes are shaped by ecology.

Notre thèse s'intéresse aux conflits d'agence entre les actionnaires de contrôle et les actionnaires minoritaires pouvant surgir suite à une décision de fusion ou d'acquisition. Plus précisément, nous tentons, à travers trois essais, d'identifier les cas où, les actionnaires de contrôle utilisent des opérations de fusions-acquisitions comme un outil de transfert de richesses des actionnaires minoritaires vers leurs propres comptes. Dans le premier essai, nous présentons une analyse théorique de ce comportement opportuniste avec deux cas portant sur des faits réels. En utilisant la méthodologie des études d'événement, nous montrons dans le deuxième essai que ce comportement peut se révéler important dans des cas spécifiques liés au degré de l'enracinement de l'actionnaire de contrôle. Dans le troisième essai, nous montrons que la prime d'acquisition peut refléter ce comportement dans les cas de fusions-acquisitions à caractère public / Our dissertation focuses on agency conflicts between controlling shareholders and minority shareholders that may arise following a merger-acquisition decision. Through three essays, we aim to identify cases in which the controlling shareholders use mergers and acquisitions as a tool to transfer wealth from minority shareholders to their own accounts. The first essay provides a theoretical analysis of this opportunistic behavior and examines two real cases. Using event study methodology, the second essay shows that the opportunistic behavior may be important in specific cases linked to the level of shareholder's entrenchment. Finally, the third essay shows that the acquisition premium may reflect this behavior even in cases of public transactions

The problem with which this study is concerned is that of determining the optimal transfer of property from a decedent to his surviving spouse. A secondary problem addressed is whether equity between common law states and community property states in the application of the estate tax provisions has been achieved through the allowance of the marital deduction. From this analysis decision criteria were developed to aid taxpayers and their advisors in determining optimal property transfers to a surviving spouse. Conclusions of the study were the following: (1) The primary concern when formulating an estate plan should be to determine whether any property should be transferred to the surviving spouse. The literature has stressed qualifying transfers for the marital deduction while giving minimal consideration to the wisdom of doing so. This study indicates that in a majority of estates optimal results are obtained by making no transfers to the surviving spouse. (2) Relative after-tax rates of return of the surviving spouse and other beneficiaries are the most important factors in determining optimal transfers to the spouse. This again conflicts with the literature which has emphasized relative estate sizes as the dominant factor. (3) Rates of inflation have minimal influence in determining the size of the optimal transfer. (4) Citizens of common law states are generally favored as opposed to citizens of community property states in the application of the estate tax laws. Citizens of these states have more flexibility in. planning transfers to beneficiaries and may generally do so at a lower tax cost through use of the marital deduction.

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