O avanço dos sistemas agrícolas moderno-industriais sobre as áreas indígenas, a desvalorização dos sistemas de produção tradicionais e a descaracterização cultural das sociedades indígenas propicia a necessidade de conhecer as atividades agrícolas de etnias que ainda mantém sistemas tradicional de trabalho. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi descrever os sistemas de produção tradicionais indígenas de três etnias: Asháninka, Shipibo Conibo e Cashibo Cacataibo, localizadas na bacia do rio Purus, Ucayali e Aguaytía, pertencente à Amazônia peruana estado de Ucayali, Peru. Para avaliar os sistemas tradicionais de cultivo das três etnias e seus modos de vida e inter-relações, foi utilizada a metodologia de Diagnóstico e Desenho, desenvolvida pelo International Centre of Reserach on Agroforestry (ICRAF). Foi verificado que os sistemas tradicionais de cultivo são adaptados às condições locais, sendo praticados sob o regime hídrico natural de enchente e vazante (agricultura de várzea), assim como também a agricultura itinerante de derrubada e queima. Entre os principais cultivos no período de verão, época de menor precipitação (abril a setembro) quando ocorre a vazante dos rios, destacam-se o feijão, amendoim e melancia, enquanto banana, milho, mandioca, batata-doce, arroz e abacaxi são cultivados no período de inverno, época das chuvas (outubro a março). Além da agricultura, a atividade de caça, pesca artesanal e colheita de frutas nativas também são praticadas como um modo de subsistência. Foi concluído que, assim como os aspectos culturais, as atividades agrícolas também são distintas entre as etnias indígenas e portanto, o conhecimento tradicional deve ser valorizado de forma particular a cada etnia. / Due to the advance of the modern industrial agricultural systems over indigenous areas, to the devaluation of the traditional farming systems and to the cultural mischaracterization of indigenous communities, it is made necessary to know and to propose improvements to their agricultural practices. In that sense, this work describes the traditional indigenous farming systems of three ethnicities: Asháninka, Shipibo Konibo and Cashibo Cacataibo, placed at the basin of the rivers Purús, Ucayali and Aguaytía, which belong to the Peruvian Amazon in the state of Ucayali, Peru Republic. Besides the studied ethnicities, many others also live in the area. For the evaluation of the traditional farming systems of these ethnicities, the method employed has been the one developed by the International Centre of Research on Agroforestry (ICRAF) of Diagnose and Drawing. The traditional farming methods are adapted to the local conditions, are practiced under the natural water regime of flood and ebb (lowland agriculture), as well as deslocating agriculture. Among the cultivations of summer - season with less rain (between April and September) -, during the rivers ebb, the highlights are beans, peanuts and watermelon, while banana, corn, manioc, sweet potato, rice and pineapple are grown in winter time - rain season (from October to March). Besides agriculture, hunting activities, fishing and native fruits picking are also seen as survival skills in the forest. It was concluded that, as well as cultural aspects, agricultural activities are also distinct from the indigenous ethnic groups and therefore traditional knowledge should be valued in a particular way every ethnicity.

Si le choc de la colonisation de la Nouvelle-Calédonie évoqué dans le préambule de l’accord sur la Nouvelle-Calédonie du 5 mai 1998 n’est plus à démontrer, les moyens développés par le droit français à l’endroit du peuple restent à être examinés. Compte tenu des relations particulières qu’entretiennent les Kanak à la terre, le choc des cultures va se traduire par l’opposition des droits entre une coutume immuable, et un droit français qui sacralise la propriété privée, participant aux droits de l’homme et du citoyen Ces particularismes propres à la colonisation de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, ont pris de multiples formes juridiques, pour ce qui est de la prise de possession elle-même puisque le peuple premier kanak va connaitre un traité (1844), une prise de possession en 1853, et des actes de reconnaissance de souveraineté paraphés par certains chefs (1854) sur la Grande Terre.1Notre questionnement permanent est donc celui de savoir comment le peuple kanak a subi en vertu du droit français un bouleversement fondamental de son espace foncier vital, des zones d’influences de ses chefferies traditionnelles, une déstructuration de son organisation dotée de ses propres codes. La reconnaissance constitutionnelle d’un statut personnel propre au peuple premier dans l’accord de Nouméa de 1998, va permettre de confirmer et d’assurer la prééminence des usages coutumiers, non plus dans ce seul domaine, mais pour tout ce qui concerne le droit civil. Le droit français réputé fondé sur l’égalité. L’application au peuple kanak de Nouvelle-Calédonie montre que cette idée doit être réexaminée. Aussi, qu’il s’agisse de la période de la colonisation (1ere partie) et son droit discriminatoire négatif où celle de la décolonisation (2eme partie) et son droit discriminatoire positif, le peuple kanak a connu et connaît toujours des règles différentes / If the shock of the colonization of New Caledonia evoked in the introduction of the agreement on New Caledonia of May 5th, 1998 is not to be any more demonstrated, themeans developed by the French law towards the people remain to be examined. Considering the particular relations that maintain Kanak in the land, the shock of the cultures is goi ng to be translated by the opposition of the rights be tween an unchanging custom, and a French law which makes sacred the private property, participat ing in the rights of man and the citizen. These senses of identity appropriate for the coloni zation of New Caledonia, took multiple legal forms, as for the very taking possession because the Kanak first people knows a treaty (1844), a taking possession in 1853, and acts of gratitude of sovere ignty were signed by leaders (1854 ) on the Big Earth 2 . Our permanent questioning is thus the one to know how the Kanak people underwent by virtue of the French law a fundamental upheaval of his vital land space, spheres of influence ofhis traditional chieftainships, a disintegration of his organizatio n endowed with his owncodes. The constitutional gratitude of a personal status a ppropriate for the first people in the agreement of Noumea of 1998, is going to allow to confirm and to assure the superiority of the usual uses, either i n this only domain, but for all which concerns the ci vil law. The renowned French law based on the equality. The application to the Kanak people of New Caledonia shows that this idea must be revised. So, it is about the period of the colonization ( 1st part)) and its negative discriminatory law wher e that of the decolonization (2eme left) and its posi tive discriminatory law, Kanak people knew and always knows different rules.

丹社群為布農族五大社群之一，約十八世紀初，從巒社群的卡特格蘭社與巒大社分支出來，沿著丹大溪漸往中央山脈移動，最先抵達祖社－丹大社居住，也有其它族人到溪諾滾社、密西可灣社等社居住，往後由於耕地狹小、人口繁衍、尋找新獵區，創建了許多社，丹社群大小舊社在日據初期的調查中，曾經高達二十餘個。此時貿易與部落間事務，都透過「通事」來進行，當時丹大溪流域仍被官方視為黑暗「奧地」。殖民政府為了「理蕃」之便，分別於各個時期成立「撫墾署」、「辦務署」第三課到「蕃務本署」與「警察本署」，「警務局」……等等理蕃機構，處理蕃地事務。兒玉源太郎總督把「警察政治」，引入「理蕃事業」中，後來更透過「丹大蕃務官吏駐在所」、「蕃物交易所」、「蕃童教育所」與「療養所」等理蕃機構的成立，逐步鞏固日本於此地的統治力，掌控丹社群的生活領域。 大正三年(1914)，太魯閣討伐戰結束，是年也沒收「南蕃」槍枝，布農族不滿的情緒爆發在東部與南部的「出草」與「襲擊駐在所」等「蕃害」上。六年(1917)，丹大溪流域爆發了「丹大事件」，事後，卡伊冬社被日方移到密西可灣社下方，為丹社群第一個被移住的舊社。臺灣總督府曾於大正八年(1919)，開始試行「集團移住」計劃，但未大規模推行。從昭和五年(1930)開始的「蕃地開發調查」事業，以「蕃人調查」與「蕃地開發」兩項事業同時進行，於「蕃人調查」中，除調查原住民的社會組織、教育、衛生、經濟、政治事務……等項目外，更詳細調查蕃社概況，載於調查中的丹社群舊社有十一個，花蓮地區有一個（其餘五個舊社則與巒社群族人共居）。事業剛開始，即發生「霧社事件」，讓日本改擬「新理蕃政策」。而為了國土的長治久安，同時也兼顧「理蕃」與「蕃地開發」，能並行不悖，決定推行大規模原住民「集團移住」計劃。最初，為了移住全臺深山「奧番」，首擬《蕃人移住十年計劃書》，此書計劃從昭和十年至昭和十一年(1935∼1936)大規模「集團移住」丹社群，但似乎早在昭和九年末，丹社群就展開了集團移住。 清代，皆為了討伐東部「木瓜番」與交通東西，於此特別修築了「關門古道」（集集、水尾道路），當時清朝更欲藉此道，意圖把臺灣分為兩部。據臺初期，政府曾把丹大社以西路段，整修成「理蕃道路」，更成為丹社群各舊社間的聯絡道路。丹社群以「社」為單位展開遷移，而Sidoh（氏族）與遷徙有密切的關係，遷移時皆以舊社中之氏族長老為其領袖，大致有七∼八大批（其中有幾戶獨自移住花蓮）。當時以丹大西溪與東溪合流口為分界點被分為兩部，往東藉由「關門古道」東段，走4∼5天（快則３天），移住到花蓮縣萬榮鄉馬遠村，東移人口佔絕大多數；西移人數較少，往西搬到南投縣信義鄉新鄉村與地利村。據昭和十六年版《高砂族授產年報》，總共移住丹社群族人146戶，共1,569人。直到昭和十五年（1941年）。為了掌控移住的「蕃人」復歸舊社，丹大溪一帶的駐在所還繼續存在著。移住後的丹社群總人口數不僅沒有增加，反而減少。 隨著計劃性「集團移住」計劃推行，丹大溪的人文景觀迅速改變，而舊社消失在地圖中，丹社群文化也因迅速的平地化，且早已忘記「狩獵文化」，希望藉由此篇論文之撰寫，能喚醒消失已久的布農族丹社群集團移住歷史。 本文透過日據時代「布農族丹社群集團移住」之個案研究，瞭解集團移住的實質內容及其成果，本文共分五章，分述如下： 第一章 緒論 第一節 研究動機與目的 第二節 研究方法 第三節 文獻回顧與研究概況 第四節 丹社群區域的地形與植被 第二章 布農族丹社群的歷史概況與社會組織 第一節 日據前丹社群之遷移 認識布農族概況、清代布農族丹社群的簡史，接著瞭解日據前丹社群之遷徙概況，用以幫助後期的遷移過程。 第二節 丹社群舊社之過去 整理日文文獻中，丹社群舊社之意義、名稱與標高辨異，作一番初步整理與比對。 第三節 丹社群舊社詳細資料與現況踏查 以實地踏查方式，寫下移住前丹社群舊社、房屋（石板屋）、駐在所、蕃童教育所、產品交易所等相關基本資料，並以地圖方式呈現相關位置。 第四節　丹社群傳統社會組織與移住前人口概況 氏族(Sidoh)一直是布農族的重要組織，丹社群也不例外，認識丹社群的傳統社會組織與氏族基本架構，能提供遷徙後新聚落的形成，此外並整理群移住前的人口。 第五節　結語 本章重點是初步瞭解日據時代未實行大規模「集團移住」前，布農族丹社群傳說歷史、人口、氏族、住所的基本資料。 第三章 日據時代原住民移住政策之形成 第一節　日據時期理蕃政策的變遷 簡述日據時代「理蕃政策」，瞭解理蕃政策的演進，對於「集團移住」政策之形成有很大的幫助。 第二節　蕃人移住十年計劃之形成 瞭解「集團移住」布農族的原因，而「蕃人移住十年計劃」計劃自昭和十年至十一年起移住布農族丹社群，本節認識此計畫內容及相關實行要點及細則。 第三節 南投境內布農族集團移住概況 日據時代，南投一區的集團移住最先從卓社群開始。大正六年(1917)，此區發生了「丹大事件」，少數丹社群舊社被移住，此區最後被移住的為巒社群，透過此節認識其它社群的移住概況。 第四節 丹社群境內之蕃害 大正三年(1914)，日本政府沒收「南蕃」槍枝，五年設通電鐵絲網於花蓮港廳與臺東廳的山腳與平地交界處，此後，沿著縱谷山腳的布農族「出草」與「蕃害」次數之多，歷年來罕見。大正六年，中部丹大溪流域的丹社群也爆發了「丹大事件」，事件平息後，導致日本移住卡伊冬，為丹社群最早被「集團移住」。 第五節 結語 從日據時代「理蕃政策」→「集團移住」政策→南投地區布農族集團移住→丹社群集團移住，形成布農族丹社群的「集團移住」。 第四章 布農族丹社群之集團移住 第一節 集團移住前之遷移 整理日官方計劃性「集團移住」前，散見文獻中有關丹社群各個舊社的遷移歷史。 第二節 丹社群之計劃性集團移住 本節探討布農族為何集團移住之原因，並利用《蕃社戶口》、蕃社〈戶籍謄本簿〉、〈蕃人除戶簿〉與其它日文文獻，詳細探討丹社群之移住移住概況，是本論文另一探討重心。 第三節　遷徙道路－關門古道 據筆者訪談中，發現清代所修築的「開山撫番」道路－關門古道，是丹社群利用於移住塔馬羅灣社與馬侯宛社的道路系統，此節詳述完整的道路開鑿史及日據時重修資料，重建丹社群遷移道路歷史。 第四節　集團移住後之新聚落 在大規模「集團移住」政策下，丹社群族人從南投移到了花蓮馬蘭鉤（又稱：麻子漏溪、富源溪）的中、下游的馬侯宛社。本節重點在於訪談族內耆老，遷移路線、移動狀況以及新聚落如何建立……等等相關問題，結合田野訪談與文獻呈現移住後「馬侯宛社」，屬於「生命史」的描述方式。 第五節　結語 結合田野訪談資料、文獻與實訪遷移道路，瞭解日據時代丹社群整個族群的遷移動線、過程與移住後的新處所。 第五章　結論 最後，希望藉由此論文獲得丹社群舊社的最新資料，也替整個丹社群的遷移作個歷史分期，把60年前丹社群的「集團移住」歷史，作最完全的描述與研究。另外一方面，也希望獲知「集團移住」對丹社群族人的影響，當年南投到花蓮，居住地方改變了，原本屬於散居形式的丹社群族人，被集中於一個地方管理，心態上是否有改變呢？而遷徙後的丹社群人，是否本身也失去了某些文化遺產，以此作為此論文的結尾。 / Dan Group(“丹社群”) is one of the fives ethnic groups of Bunun. In the early eighteen century, some groups, branching off from Catogulan(“卡特格蘭社”) tribe and the Big Luan tribe of Luan ethnic group, immigrated along the Dan-da stream area to the ancestral tribe－Dan-da tribe; the other to the Hinogun(“溪諾滾社”), Misikowan(“密西可灣社”), or the others. Lacking of tilth for a rapidly growing population, they used to move to find new hunting grounds and then to invent new inhabitation, which even amounted to more than twenty according to the early investigation in the Japanese governing period. In the meanwhile, the Dan-da stream area was considered as the chaotic places, and the trades as well as the affaires among the tribes were done through translators/negotiators(“ 通事”). In order to rule the indigence, the colonial government, the Japanese government, set up offices for helping tillage, dealing with affaires, keeping the public order, and etc. The Viceroy Chitama(“兒玉源太郎”) introduced the police politics/police system(“警察制度”) into the affaires, and successfully governed this area by the organizations of the police station for dealing with the official affaires(“丹大蕃務官吏駐在所”), or for trading, education, sanatorium, and etc. In the third year of Taishou Period(大正)(1914), the quell over Taroko was over. That the governor punished the Bunun by confiscating their weapons aroused their malcontent and caused their revenges by Chutsau(“出草”)(a custom to hack the heads of the other tribes' persons) and attacking the police offices－remote in the mountains, in the eastern and southern restricts. In the sixth year (1917), the Dan-da event occurred in the DanOda stream area. Afterwards, Caiton(“卡伊冬社”), transferred under Mishikowan by the Japanese Government was the immigrated ancient tribe. Taiwan viceroy government tried to carry out Grouping-immigration Plan in the eight year(1919) of Taishou, but it was just performed in a small scale. The Indigence-investigating-and-developing Program was practiced in the ways of investigating and developing at the same time. The investigating project contains the records of social organization, education, sanitation, economic, public affaires, and overall situation of the eleven tribes－one was in Hualien, and another five cohabited with the Luan tribe. While in the very first beginning, the Oosheh Event(“霧社事件”) happened that let Japanese government to draw up new policy of ruling aborigines (“新理蕃政策”). The policy aimed to rule the indigence and develop the indigenous area sufficiently for the long prosperity, and it was undertaken with the Grouping-immigration Program. At first, the government issued a project of grouping-immigration of aborigines in ten years(《蕃人移住十年計畫書》) to immigrate the valiant and unruly (intractable, obstinate, wild) indigenes in the remote mountains. The government planned to immigrate the Dan Ethnic group collectively in a large scale from the tenth year to the eleventh year of Shouwa(1935∼1936). However, Dan groups seemed to immigrate collectively themselves before, about the end of the ninth year of Shouwa. In the Ching Dynasty, the government put up the Kuan-men trail(“關門古道”) to quell Mukua Fan(“木瓜番”) in the eastern Taiwan and to connect the east and the west, and even to divide Taiwan into two parts ultimately. In the beginning of Japanese occupied period, the Japanese government once renovate the western section of the trail from Dasheh(“大社”) to the trail of ruling the indigence(“理蕃道路”), and it sequentially became the main line of connecting the ancient tribes of Dan ethic group. Dan Group immigrated in the unit of a tribe, in which Sidoh plays the most important parts. They used to follow the honorable elderly in the tribes. According to the investigation, there were seven to eight groups recorded at that time－some moved to Hualien separately. To sum up, the migratory activity could be divided into two parts by the river limit between the Dan-da West Stream and the Dan-da East Stream. The majority, moving east by the eastern section of Kuan-men trial, immigrated to the Mayuan Village in the Wangron County oh Hualien in four or five days; sometimes they could spend less than three days. The minority immigrated west to Dili Village in the Hsingyi county of Nantou. According to the Kausha-Shochan annual (《高砂授產年報》) in the sixteenth year oh Shouwa(昭和十六年), the immigration of Dan groups were one hundred and forty-six families amounted to one thousand five hundred and sixty-nine persons. The police station still existed to control the immigrating indigence back to the ancient tribes effectively from the fifth year of Showa(1941). While, the amount of the population decreased instead of increasing. With the practice of the Grouping Immigration program, the humane resources including history in the Dan-da Stream area has changed rapidly. Therefore, we can notify those in two aspects. First, the ancient tribe disappears not only in the maps but also in the history. Second, Dan Ethnic Group has forgot their tribal culture as well as their valuable hunting tradition for getting accustomed to the secular life. I deeply hope to arouse and to promote the disappearing Grouping-immigration history of Dan Ethnic Group of Bunun.

<p><i>Echiochilon</i>, <i>Ogastemma</i> and <i>Sericostoma</i> are revised resulting in the recognition of 15 species of <i>Echiochilon</i> and one <i>Ogastemma</i> species. Several species are placed in synonymy and three new species are described, <i>E. baricum</i>, <i>E. callianthum</i> and <i>E. cyananthum</i>. The single species of <i>Sericostoma</i> is shown to be nested within <i>Echiochilon</i>.</p><p>The plastid <i>atpB</i> gene was sequenced for <i>Echiochilon</i> and <i>Ogastemma</i> from the Old World and <i>Antiphytum</i> from the New World, plus for a selection of 33 other Boraginaceae taxa. They were analysed together with selected outgroup taxa to give a framework of the tribes of Boraginoideae. The analysis gave support for establishing the new tribe Echiochileae for <i>Antiphytum</i>, <i>Echiochilon</i> and <i>Ogastemma</i>, and for merging the traditionally accepted tribe Eritrichieae with Cynoglosseae. The ITS region was sequenced for all but one species of <i>Echiochilon</i> and for representatives of <i>Antiphytum</i> and <i>Ogastemma</i>. Phylogenetic analysis of Echiochilon revealed that the strongly zygomorphic-flowered species form a paraphyletic group. The morphological data gave results fairly congruent with the ITS phylogeny.</p><p>Biogeographic interpretations of the ITS and <i>atpB</i> phylogenies indicated a trans-Atlantic dispersal of <i>Antiphytum</i> as the most plausible explanation to the Old/New World disjunction. Analyses using DIVA (Dispersal Vicariance Analysis) of the distributions of the <i>Echiochilon</i> species indicated an ancestor to <i>Echiochilon</i> with a wide distribution over northern Africa and Arabia to India.</p>

Echiochilon, Ogastemma and Sericostoma are revised resulting in the recognition of 15 species of Echiochilon and one Ogastemma species. Several species are placed in synonymy and three new species are described, E. baricum, E. callianthum and E. cyananthum. The single species of Sericostoma is shown to be nested within Echiochilon. The plastid atpB gene was sequenced for Echiochilon and Ogastemma from the Old World and Antiphytum from the New World, plus for a selection of 33 other Boraginaceae taxa. They were analysed together with selected outgroup taxa to give a framework of the tribes of Boraginoideae. The analysis gave support for establishing the new tribe Echiochileae for Antiphytum, Echiochilon and Ogastemma, and for merging the traditionally accepted tribe Eritrichieae with Cynoglosseae. The ITS region was sequenced for all but one species of Echiochilon and for representatives of Antiphytum and Ogastemma. Phylogenetic analysis of Echiochilon revealed that the strongly zygomorphic-flowered species form a paraphyletic group. The morphological data gave results fairly congruent with the ITS phylogeny. Biogeographic interpretations of the ITS and atpB phylogenies indicated a trans-Atlantic dispersal of Antiphytum as the most plausible explanation to the Old/New World disjunction. Analyses using DIVA (Dispersal Vicariance Analysis) of the distributions of the Echiochilon species indicated an ancestor to Echiochilon with a wide distribution over northern Africa and Arabia to India.

La tesis doctoral explora sobre las manifestaciones culturales juveniles en una casa ocupada en Santiago de Chile. Allí se reunieron jóvenes que formaron su identidad mediante algunos ritos de paso. La música, el vestuario, el lenguaje y la experiencia de vida cotidiana fueron elementos que los congregaron. La casa la Marraketa fue el territorio en donde desarrollaron sus inquietudes y convivieron alrededor de 5 años. La tesis es una narración de la juventud que se completa con información proveniente de fuentes jurídicas e históricas. El aporte de estas disciplinas está relacionado con los diversos estudios que se han llevado a cabo en torno a la juventud en las diferentes épocas, y teniendo en consideración contextos urbanos occidentales. Asimismo, es un relato sobre las ciudades contemporáneas. En este sentido hay una descripción de los problemas por los que atraviesa la juventud en Latinoamérica en los últimos treinta años. La investigación describe el tribalismo urbano haciendo especial hincapié en ciertas manifestaciones de estilo. Hay referencias sobre el movimiento punk, skins y heavy metal. Del mismo modo se establece como hipótesis de trabajo que estas manifestaciones de estilo son importantes en los ritos de pasaje de los jóvenes en su tránsito hacia la etapa adulta. Siguiendo a Clifford Geertz se intenta demostrar que las expresiones culturales juveniles son “programas extragenéticos” que sirven para desarrollar sus identidades dotándolas de un marco amplio de posibilidades simbólicas. / This investigation explore about the cultural manifestations of the squatting in a house of Santiago de Chile. In this place they meet and created an identity by means rites of passage. The music, costumes, language and the experiencie of the daily life were elements for to do possible the comunity of the young people. “La Casa la Marraketa” it was the territory where the young people developed interests. They lived about five years in this place. This investigation is an account of the youth, and is completed with information from juridical and historical sources. The contribution of this disciplines is connected with a many studies about the young people in a different age, and whereas occidental urbans contexts. Also is a report over the contemporary citys. In this senses there is a description of the problems of the young people in Latinoamérica in the last thirty years. The investigation describe the urban tribalism and the style manifestations. There is references about the punk, skins and heavy metal movements. As well it establishes how hypothesis of work that this cultural manifestations between the young people are rites de passage for to pass to the adult stage. In correspondence with the propositions of Clifford Geertz, the doctoral thesis try to prove that the cultural expressions in a young people are “extragenetics programs” that serve for to develop identity in a wide setting of symbolic posibilities.

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This study explores and critically examines the role of indigenous mechanisms (the Inter-Tribal Reconciliation Conferences-ITRCs) in resolving tribal conflicts in South Darfur State of Western Sudan. The fundamental question raised by this study is: have these reconciliation conferences- 1989-2009- been able to address the root causes of the tribal conflicts and are they capable of serving the same role that they once did? Tribal leadership structures, such as Native Administration (NA) and their mechanisms of conflict resolution/management in Darfur, have been subjected to highly significant changes over time. The question is to what extent these changes further fuelled tribal conflicts and/or have negatively affected the capability of the NA and the ITRCs to deal with these conflicts? This thesis relies on archive records and reports of the ITRCs and data generated through interviews conducted with key informants. Through a detailed analysis the study: 1) presents a detailed account of the major conflicts and their causes in South Darfur; 2) identifies the changing identities of the protagonists and of the perceived causes; 3) assesses the effectiveness of the agreements reached by these conferences when considered alongside the causes identified. Analysis of the ITRCs shows that tribal conflicts in Darfur (from1980s), and South Darfur in particular, were connected to the wider political conflict in the Sudan and the region respectively. The analysis suggests that the history of neglect/marginalisation of the region by successive governments, and the political manipulation of the NA and local government, have negatively affected the performance of these institutions. The experience of the ITRCs indicates that they were unable to address the underlying causes of the tribal conflicts, such as land disputes, the manipulation of the NA and local government, rape and mass killings.

Thesis (MA (Development Admin.))--University of Stellenbosch, 1975. / A detailed account of the geography, history and demography of the Caprivi was compiled and in addition an investigation of the Fwe kinship structure and social organization and their judicial process was carried out. This study provided a framework within which Fwe law operates.

Les catastrophes naturelles au nord-est de l’Inde, tout comme dans le reste du monde, attirent régulièrement l’attention des médias. Au-delà des interventions d’urgence, il s’avère nécessaire de prendre du recul afin de mieux cerner l’origine des évènements et les stratégies d’adaptation déployées par les populations pour y faire face. Suivant une approche interdisciplinaire mêlant hydro-géomorphologie, éco-anthropologie et political ecology, cette thèse apporte un éclairage nouveau sur les dynamiques du Brahmapoutre, les interactions sociétés-milieux et la gestion des risques dans une région peu étudiée. En Assam, chaque année au cours de la mousson, le fleuve Brahmapoutre entre en crue et déborde dans sa plaine, déposant sur son passage des sédiments sableux et des limons fertiles. Dans cet espace densément peuplé, les Mising - population originaire de l’Himalaya oriental, Scheduled Tribe d’Assam - ont longtemps adapté leurs modes de vie à ce milieu dynamique. Au rythme du fleuve, les Mising pratiquent plusieurs types de riziculture, utilisent différentes techniques de pêche et déplacent leurs villages dans les espaces exposés aux inondations en suivant le mouvement des chenaux. Or, en 1950, un séisme majeur provoqua d’importantes modifications de l’hydrosystème fluvial, bouleversant ce système socio-écologique fragile. Pour contrôler le Brahmapoutre et mettre en valeur les territoires, la région connut dès le XIIe siècle des programmes d’endiguement et d’administration foncière sur la rive sud. À partir de 1954, l’État d’Assam étendit l’endiguement de part et d’autre du lit mineur. Ces aménagements incitèrent les communautés paysannes à se sédentariser dans les périmètres protégés en les contraignant à respecter les nouvelles délimitations foncières. Toutefois, depuis 1988, des ruptures de digues soudaines ont été à l’origine d’inondations récurrentes dans les espaces censés être protégés, tandis que l’érosion se poursuit, emportant les terres de plusieurs villages des subdivisions de Bokakhat, Majuli et Dhakuakhana, objets de cette thèse. L’objectif général de cette thèse est de montrer – à l’aide d’exemples pris dans trois localités – comment les aménagements fluviaux et les politiques foncières ont provoqué une crise sociale et environnementale obligeant les Mising à réajuster leurs pratiques agricoles tout en renégociant leur place au sein de la société et du territoire assamais. Ainsi, à Bokakhat, les Mising négocient leurs droits d’accès aux ressources avec les autorités du parc national de Kaziranga ; à Majuli, ils travaillent pour les institutions religieuses vaishnavites et les propriétaires terriens assamais ; à Dhakuakhana, certains d’entre eux se réfugient illégalement sur les débris de digues et espèrent que leurs terres pourront redevenir fertiles, tandis que d’autres émigrent. Dans ces situations socio-économiques distinctes, les Mising adoptent différentes stratégies socioreligieuses. Ils sont partagés entre ceux qui souhaitent s’insérer au sein de la société assamaise en adoptant les cultes vaishnavites localement dominants, ceux qui envisagent d’accéder au monde globalisé par une conversion au christianisme, et ceux qui affirment une identité tribale en faisant revivre des cultes plus anciens. En représentant l’ensemble de la communauté devant l’État d’Assam, les organisations politiques mising demandent plus d’autonomie territoriale vis-à-vis de Delhi. Un projet néanmoins difficile à mettre en œuvre, car les villages mising sont dispersés parmi ceux d’autres communautés d’Assam. Dans quelle mesure ces stratégies permettront-elles aux Mising de maintenir leurs capacités d'adaptation dans un milieu changeant ? / Natural disasters in Northeast India and in the rest of the world regularly attract media’s attention. Besides an emergency response to these events, it is necessary to distance oneself from the disaster in order to acquire a better understanding of the cause of the events and the coping strategies adopted by the population. Following on an interdisciplinary approach combining disciplines such as hydro-geomorphology, eco-anthropology and political ecology, this thesis sheds new light on the dynamics of the Brahmaputra River, the socio-environmental interactions and risk management in an area where few studies have been conducted.In Assam, every year during the monsoon, the level of the Brahmaputra River rises and overflows into the floodplain, covering sandy land and carrying fertile silts. In this densely populated area, the Mising tribe - a group from the eastern Himalayas, a scheduled tribe of Assam - has for long time managed to adapt its way of life to this dynamic environment. The Misings practise several types of rice cultivation; use different fishing techniques and move their villages according to the flow of the braided river’s channels. However, in 1950, a major earthquake brought about important modifications in the river’s hydrosystem, seriously upsetting this fragile socio-ecological system. Embankments have been built and land has been administrated on the south bank of the Brahmaputra since the twelfth century to control the river and to establish territories. But since 1954, the State of Assam has extended the embankments on both sides of the river. These infrastructures have encouraged farming communities to settle on these new protected lands, forcing them to respect cadastral boundaries. However, since 1988, breaches in the embankment have frequently led to flash floods, while erosion has caused land belonging to several villages in Majuli, Bokakhat and Dhakuakhana subdivisions, which are discussed in this thesis, to be washed away. The main objective of this thesis is to demonstrate — using examples from these three territories — how river engineering and rigid administrative boundaries have led to a social and environmental crisis that leaves the Misings no option but to adjust their agricultural practices and to adopt various strategies to negotiate their space on Assamese land and within Assamese society. Thus, in Bokakhat, the Misings negotiate their right to access resources with the Kaziranga National Park authorities; in Majuli, they work as farmers for Vaishnavite religious institutions and Assamese landowners; in Dhakuakhana, some of them take shelter illegally on portions of the embankment in the hope that their land will be restored to them, while others choose to migrate. In these distinct socio-economical conditions, they are divided into those who are assimilated into Assamese society through Vaishnavite cults, those who have converted to Christianity, which is gaining a foothold in the globalized world, and those who defend their tribal identity and who are reviving ancient faith. Finally, Mising political organizations are claiming to the State of Assam and to Delhi for more territorial autonomy. This would be a difficult undertaking as their villages are scattered among the other communities of Assam. To what extent these strategies will help the Misings to maintain their adaptability in a changing environment?