This thesis concerns the development of Swedish ice hockey as a national phenomenon during the period 1920–1972. The dissertation explores how the sport of ice hockey in just over half a century was transformed from a rather insignificant North American cultural import to one of Sweden’s most treasured pursuits by and large, and harbouring a national team (known as “Tre Kronor”) that at the height of its popularity in 1970 gathered almost the whole nation (82 percent of the adult population) in front of TV-sets during national game broadcasts. The analytical approach of the study is grounded in the theoretical assumption that “to be Swedish” is something you “learn” on a daily basis, and that an investigation of how “the nation” is constructed as an imagined community must see to the interplay between national rhetoric on the one hand and national practice on the other. This means that the analysis moves on two different levels, where the first is comprised of the sporting practice in itself (teams, games, players etc.), while the other deals with the conception of ice hockey in relation to national identity. The empirical investigation shows that the introduction of ice hockey in Sweden was “launched from above” under the influence of unbridled nationalistic sentiment in Sweden at large at the turn of the 20th century. The study also shows that during the inter-war era the Swedish Ice Hockey Federation promoted the spread of ice hockey in Sweden by stressing the game’s benefits as a more practical sport than the similar and already established winter sport, bandy. It is also argued that in most cases it was not so much a genuine passion for the game itself, but instead prosaic factors (economical considerations, sporting success and maintenance of ice surface etc.) that made sporting clubs take up ice hockey. After World War II the public interest in ice hockey exploded in Sweden. In the cold war era, Tre Kronor came to function as a thermometer of how the so called Swedish model stood up in comparison to the superpowers of the world. The analysis also underlines the importance of the comprehensive organizational and moral rearmament of Swedish ice hockey at large conducted by the Swedish Ice Hockey Federation in the post-war era, since it helped its cultural incorporation in the Swedish welfare state and its connection to Swedish national identity

Nel contesto italiano, molti prodotti mediali sono di origine straniera: diffusi o trasmessi insieme a quelli di produzione nazionale, al tempo stesso cambiano spesso forma, per andare incontro al pubblico italiano, e diventano, almeno in parte, diversi dall’originale. La tesi vuole, pertanto, porre le basi teoriche per uno studio sistematico dei processi di “mediazione” che intercorrono nel passaggio di un testo mediale da un Paese all’altro: l’appropriazione nazionale (“italianizzazione”), l’adattamento, la distribuzione, la circolazione e la messa in pagina di contenuti e prodotti. Tali strumenti trovano poi applicazione (e insieme conferma) nell’analisi delle vicende italiane della sitcom americana, e di alcuni titoli in particolare, sotto tre punti di vista: la ricostruzione della storia del genere, che segue le evoluzioni del sistema televisivo e mediale nazionale e da questo è mediato; la definizione delle oscillazioni e variazioni che il testo affronta, senza limitarsi alla traduzione ma seguendone l’adattamento e la traslazione; infine, il racconto dei percorsi tra mercati, doppiaggi e reti che compongono la filiera della sitcom, mettendo in evidenza il ruolo intermedio svolto dalle routine produttive e dagli addetti ai lavori coinvolti nella distribuzione internazionale (e poi, nel nuovo contesto, nazionale). / In the Italian context, several media products have foreign origins: diffused or broadcast together with the national productions, they often change their nature in order to reach the Italian audience, and consequently become partially different products. Therefore, this dissertation aims to put the theoretical basis of a systematic study of the “mediation” processes that take place in the passage of a media text between two countries: national appropriation (“Italianization”), adaptation, distribution and circulation of different contents and products. Subsequently, these tools are applied on (and confirmed by) the analysis of the Italian vicissitudes of the US-made situation comedy, focusing on five titles, in order to study three aspects: the genre history on Italian TV, connected with the evolution of the national TV and media system; the variations and gaps that every text has to face, thus expanding the concept of translation into adaptation and transposition; in conclusion, the US sitcom chain in Italy, including TV markets, dubbings and broadcasting, highlighting the intermediary role played by production routines and professionals involved in the national and international distribution.

Existe um sem número de obras que tratam da Economia Global (ou Globalização), analisando-a quanto aos aspectos econômicos, sociais, culturais, etc. Neste trabalho, utilizando-se as teorias de Gramsci, Althusser e outros sobre os Aparelhos Coercitivos de Estado, os Aparelhos de Hegemonia (Gramsci), os Aparelhos Ideológicos de Estado (Althusser) e a Indústria Cultural, partiu-se para uma perspectiva de Estado Transnacional Ampliado, liderado pelos Estados Unidos da América com as inevitáveis conseqüências para os países Latino-Americanos, no que tange aos aspectos econômicos e culturais. A necessária resistência a esse processo é enfatizada como a única saída possível para a América Latina, se quiser manter sua identidade perante a chamada \"Americanização\" econômico-cultural. / There are innumerable works on the issue of the Global Economy (or Globalization), analyzing the theme from economic, social and cultural aspects, etc. This work uses the theories of Gramsci, Althusser and others of the Coercive Apparatus of the State, the Hegemonic Apparatus (Gramsci), the Ideological Apparatus of the State (Althusser) and the Cultural Industry to move towards the perspective of an Enlarged Transnational State led by the United States of America and its inevitable consequences for Latin American nations on both the economic and cultural levels. Necessary resistance to this process is stressed as the only possible way out for Latin America, if it is to maintain its identity before this so-called economic/cultural \"Americanization\".

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I dagens alltmer teknologiska och globala samhälle, där marknadsföring och reklam inte längre är bundet till landsgränser, är det viktigare än någonsin förr att marknadsförare på internationella företag är medvetna om hur kulturella värden i reklam uppfattas av sin publik. Tidigare forskning indikerar att användningen av lokaliserad reklam i marknadsföring ofta är fördelaktig, eftersom bristande kulturell känslighet kan bli kostsam för internationella företag. Mot bakgrund av detta syftar denna studie till att utforska tankar, upplevelser och reflektioner kring McDonald's reklam som är anpassad för en svensk marknad. Då amerikanisering och homogenisering av kulturella värden länge varit ett aktuellt ämne, undersöker denna studie även svenskars uppfattningar av McDonald's inhemska, amerikanska reklam. Detta för att avgöra om spridningen av amerikanska värderingar har möjliggjort användningen av standardiserad reklam av internationella företag. Empirin samlades i denna studie in genom semi-strukturerade intervjuer utförda i två fokusgrupper. Fokusgrupperna bestod av åtta svenska individer som fick ta del av både svensk och amerikansk McDonald's-reklam och därefter delta i diskussioner om sina intryck och uppfattningar. Studiens resultat visade att den svenska publiken upplevde den amerikanska reklamen som främmande, opersonlig och överdrivet säljdriven. De kulturella skillnaderna och språkbarriären uppskattades inte av publiken då de hindrade relaterbarheten till innehållet. Däremot ansågs den amerikanska reklamen kunna vara attraktiv för en yngre generation.  Den svenska reklamen resonerade betydligt bättre med publiken. Den upplevdes som tilltalande och personlig och värderingar om ett gemensamt ansvar för naturen relaterade till publiken. Dock var publiken kritisk till huruvida budskapet i den svenska reklamen verkligen var autentiskt. De svenska värderingar som förmedlades i reklamfilmen ansågs vara tillgjorda och användas för att manipulera mottagaren till en mer positiv syn på företaget. Många av dessa resonemang kunde härledas till deras upplevelse av McDonald’s som företag och det starka bandet snabbmatskedjan ansågs ha till USA och amerikanska värderingar. En dissonans uppstod därmed mellan att värna om miljön och att konsumera snabbmat, då detta ledde till associationer om masskonsumtion.  Resultatet från denna studie understryker betydelsen av att anpassa reklam efter kulturella värderingar för internationella företag som vill lyckas på en global marknad. Studien belyser även de utmaningar marknadsförare på internationella företag står inför då anpassning efter lokala värderingar bör ske, men måste genomföras på ett sådant sätt som framstår som genuint för mottagaren samtidigt som värderingarna bör överensstämma med varumärket och dess lokala konnotationer. Produkten i sig och upplevelsen av varumärkets ursprung antas därmed spela in i hur publiken uppfattar de lokala anpassningarna, vilket utgör en viktig insikt för marknadsförare på en global marknad. / In today's increasingly technological and global society, where marketing and advertising are less and less bound by national borders, it is more important than ever for marketers at international companies to be aware of how cultural values in advertisements are perceived by their audience. Previous research indicates that the use of localized ads is often beneficial, as cultural insensitivity can be costly for international companies. Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore the opinions, experiences, and reflections regarding McDonald’s ads tailored for the Swedish market. Given the ongoing discussion about Americanization and the homogenization of cultural values, this study also examines Swedish audiences’ perceptions of McDonald’s domestic American advertisements to determine whether the spread of American values has facilitated the use of standardized advertising by international companies. The empirical data for this study were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted in two separate focus groups. These focus groups consisted of eight Swedish participants who viewed both Swedish and American McDonald's advertisements and then discussed their impressions and perceptions. The study's results indicated that the Swedish audience perceived the American advertisements as unfamiliar, impersonal, and overly sales-driven. The cultural differences and language barriers were not well-received by the audience, rendering the advertisements unrelatable. However, the American McDonald's advertisements were viewed as more attractive to a younger generation. In contrast, the Swedish McDonald's advertisements resonated better with the Swedish audience, being perceived as more appealing and personal. The values of collective responsibility for the environment were seen as particularly relatable. However, the audience criticized the authenticity of the messages conveyed in the Swedish advertisements. They perceived the values depicted in the ads as contrived, aimed at manipulating viewers into holding a favorable opinion of the company. These viewpoints were primarily associated with their perception of McDonald’s as a corporation and its strong ties to the USA and American values. A discrepancy emerged between environmental concern and the consumption of fast food, leading to associations with mass consumption. The findings of this study underscore the significance of international companies adjusting their advertising to align with cultural values for success in the global market. Additionally, the study emphasizes the challenges faced by marketers at international companies, highlighting the necessity for adaptation to local values in a manner that appears authentic to viewers and resonates with the brand and its local connotations. Consequently, the product itself and perceptions of the brand's origin are presumed to influence how audiences perceive these localized adaptations, providing critical insights for marketers in a global market.

Les objectifs du droit de la faillite sont divers. Ils évoluent dans le temps et dans l’espace. Vouloir éliminer le mauvais débiteur qui ne paie pas ses dettes et le punir, garantir le règlement des créanciers, tels sont les objectifs traditionnels. Assurer la survie de l'entreprise et prévenir les difficultés, tels sont les objectifs modernes. La diversité entraîne la hiérarchie des objectifs. L’étude comparative oppose les systèmes pro-débiteur et pro-créancier en fonction de la finalité prioritaire retenue. Elle montre que les objectifs des législations convergent vers le sauvetage des entreprises. Le droit fédéral des Etats-Unis, fondé sur la philosophie du nouveau départ, inspire les législateurs européens. L’analyse économique du droit, renouvelle la question des objectifs du droit de la faillite au regard de l’efficience, critère de légalité. Elle explique la convergence. La recherche de l’efficacité procédurale et substantielle guide l’orientation de la Commission européenne dans l’optique de promouvoir le marché unique. Ainsi, le consensus sur l’objectif de sauvegarde de l’entreprise rend possible l’harmonisation des règles substantielles au niveau européen. La révision du règlement (CE) n°1346/2000 relatif aux procédures d’insolvabilité confirme l’adhésion générale à l’idée de seconde chance. L’opposition entre systèmes pro-débiteur et pro-créancier s’estompe et laisse place à un système mixte. Chaque législation essaye de tendre vers la conciliation des intérêts contradictoires, ce qui entraîne le déplacement de la valeur du respect de la parole donnée, vers le concept plus difficile à cerner, mais qui fonde la force obligatoire des obligations: la confiance. / The objectives of bankruptcy law are varied and evolve over time and situation. Eradicating and punishing bad debtors and guaranteeing payment to creditors are traditional goals. Ensuring the survival of the company and preventing difficulties are modern goals. This diversity leads to a hierarchy of objectives. A comparative study contrasts pro-debtor and pro-creditor systems according to the priority of their identified objectives. It shows that the objective of legislations tends towards the salvaging of companies. Federal US law, founded on the principle of fresh start, inspires laws in Europe. Economic analysis of law reiterates the question of the objectives of bankruptcy law from the perspective of an efficient legal standard, explaining this tendency. The search for procedural and substantial efficiency guides the European Commission in the promotion of a single market. Therefore, consensus on the objective of salvaging the company makes harmonization of the substantive rules at the European level possible. The revision of Regulation (EC) N°1346/2000 on insolvency proceedings confirms the general acceptance of the idea of a second chance. The opposition between pro-debtor and pro-creditor systems diminishes, giving way to a mixed system. Each law attempts to move towards the reconciliation of conflicting interests, leading to the displacement of the value of respect for the word towards the concept, more difficult to define, but which founds binding obligation: trust.

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