Research issue: The transition from Basel II to Basel III becomes consuming for banks, financially. But Basel III should be profitably for financial market economy. Risks in the financial world is very complex. Is Basel III is sufficient to manage risk and future crises Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine the application of Basel II and the transition to Basel III in Sweden with the banking system in focus. Method: The study has a qualitative research methodology for the collection of empirical data. The study is based on interviews with four large banks of Sweden (Swedbank, SEB, Nordea, Handelsbanken) and with Finansinspektionen. We also used previous studies, books and rapports. Conclusions: Basel has no direct connection to the profitability of the banks. The translation to Basel III was an obvious step for a more stable financial market. With Basel III it became more expensive for the banks; the more cost the less returns and hence led dividends for shareholders. But the banks will not bear the costs themselves, the costumers will get affected. Banks have begun to adapt to Basel III. There are requirements to save equity immediately not only in crisis. Which leads to the return is not likely to be lowered at bad times.

Kommersiella fastigheter är en kapitalintensiv tillgång, i behov av externt kapital, med flertalet intressenter. Syftet med uppsatsen är att studera effekten av regelverket Basel III genom att se hur fastighetsbolagens finansiering av kommersiella fastigheter har förändrats mellan år 2014 och år 2019. Tidigare har kommersiella fastigheter till största del finansierats med banklån men även andra former av finansiering blir allt vanligare, till exempel genom obligationer, certifikat, crowdfunding och direktfinansiering. Traditionella banklån är beroende av hur bankernas utlåning sker, vilket genom Basel regelverket har blivit mer reglerat de senaste åren. Baselkommittén för banktillsyn främjar den globala finansiella stabiliteten genom att samordna bankregleringar och tillsyn inom den finansiella sektorn. Basel III innebär skärpta kapitalkrav för bankerna och begränsningar för hur exponerade banken får vara mot en bransch eller motpart vid kreditgivning. Undersökningen baserades på elva fastighetsbolag noterade på Stockholmsbörsen i ”large cap”-kategorin. Resultatet visade på en förändring av finansieringskällor för fastighetsbolagen mellan år 2014 och år 2019 där banklån i snitt minskade med 27 procentenheter medan obligationer i snitt ökade med 23 procentenheter. Användningen av certifikat som finansieringskälla ökade marginellt mellan 2014 och 2019. Fastighetsbolagen hade även under denna tidsperiod sänkt sina finansieringskostnader och uppnått en längre kapitalbindningstid samt har idag lägre belåningsgrader. Sammantaget leder detta till att fastighetsbolagens finansiella ställning har blivit bättre. / Commercial real estate is a capital-intensive asset, in need of external capital. The purpose of the thesis is to study the effect of the Basel III by looking at how the real estate companies' financing of commercial real estate has changed between 2014 and 2019. Previously, commercial real estate has largely been financed with bank loans, but other forms of financing are becoming more common, for example bonds, certificates, crowdfunding and direct financing. Traditional bank loans are depending on different aspects such as risk weighted assets, which through the Basel regulations has become more regulated in recent years. The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision promotes global financial stability by coordinating banking regulations and supervision in the financial sector. Basel III entails stricter capital requirements for the banks and limits on how exposed the bank may be to an industry or counterparty when granting credit. The study was based on eleven real estate companies listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in the “large cap” category. The result showed a change in funding sources for the real estate companies between 2014 and 2019 where bank loans on average decreased by 27 percentage points while bonds on average increased by 23 percentage points. The use of certificates as a source of financing increased marginally between 2014 and 2019. During this period, the real estate companies had also lowered their financing costs and achieved a longer capital commitment period and today have lower loan-to-value ratios. To summarize, this means that the real estate companies' financial position has improved. TRITA-ABE-MBT-20479

Denna uppsats behandlar vilka likheter och skillnader det finns i kreditbedömningsprocessen för en stor respektive liten bank på den svenska marknaden. Detta finner vi intressant då det ständigt tillkommer nya aktörer på marknaden samt att ämnet alltid förblir aktuellt. Uppsatsen behandlar även om det skett någon större utveckling av processen till följd av den finansiella kris som skedde år 2008 samt hur man förutspår att kreditbedömningsprocessen kommer att fortsätta utvecklas i framtiden. Vår studie fokuserar på kreditbedömningsprocessen till små- och medelstora företag som är ett viktigt segment för både banker men även för samhället. De banker som jämförs i studien är Marginalen bank som vi anser vara en mindre bank och Handelsbanken som är en de fyra storbankerna i Sverige. En slutsats har dragits utifrån vår studie att det finns både likheter och skillnader mellan bankernas kreditgivningsprocesser samt att Finanskrisen år 2008 har kommit att påverka Basel-regelverket och därigenom även utvecklingen av kreditgivningsprocessen. De båda bankerna har en gemensam syn vad gäller den framtida utvecklingen av processen som innebär att en större automatisering med största sannolikhet kommer att ske. / This paper deals with the similarities and differences in the credit assessment process for well known and respected small sized bank in the Swedish market. We find this interesting as there are always new players in the market and make sure the different topics and issues are constantly updated and stay updated on current trends and demands. The study also applies to the process of a major development which resulted from the financial crisis in 2008, and how to predict the credit assessment system with its continuation and development in the future. Our study focuses on the credit assessment process for small and medium-sized enterprises, which is an important segment for both banks, but also for society. The two banks compared in our study are Marginalen Bank, which we consider to be a smaller bank and Handelsbanken, which is one of the four major banks in Sweden. A conclusion has been drawn from our study that there are both similarities and differences between the banks' crediting processes and that the 2008 financial crisis has affected the Basel acquisition and thereby also the development of the credit granting process. Both banks have a common view regarding the future development of the process, which means that greater automation is most likely to happen.

Finanskrisen 2007-2008 blev startskottet för nya bankregleringar och åtstramningar.Regelverket Basel III introducerades med syfte att hantera risker bättre genom att införahårdare kapital- och likviditetskrav som i sin tur skulle motverka eventuella nya systematiskarisker. Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka Basel III:s påverkan på diversifieringen avfastighetsfinansiering på den svenska marknaden och utreda de drivkrafter och effekter avdessa förändringar. Studien ämnar att ge ett brett perspektiv genom att undersöka påverkan påett flertal sektorer i den empiriska undersökningen. Efter genomförandet av studien så kan det konstateras att bankerna har fått ökade kostnadersom sedermera har förskjutits till kunderna. Vidare har belåningsgraderna i fastighetssektornminskat till följd av implementeringen Basel III. Det nya regulatoriska landskapet har banat väg för diversifiering. Dock, så kan de primäradrivkrafterna tillskrivas makro-sentiment, jakt på avkastning, market timing och aktörer somhar vuxit ifrån sitt beroende av bankkapital. / The financial crisis of 2007-2008 was the start of new banking regulations and austeritymeasures. Basel III was introduced with the intent of managing risks better by introducingstricter capital and liquidity requirements. The new requirements would in return counteractany new systematic risks. The purpose of this study is to investigate Basel III’s impact oncredit diversification on the Swedish market and navigate what the driving forces are and theeffects of regulatory change. The aim is to provide a broad perspective by presenting valuableinformation relevant to the subject and examining the impact of these changes on differentsectors. The results of the study shows that new regulations have entailed a major regulatory changewith subsequent implications on the market. Findings also show that banks have experiencedan increase of costs which have since been shifted to customers. Furthermore, loan-to-valueratios within the real estate sector have decreased as a result of the implementation of BaselIII. The new regulatory framework has paved the way for diversification. However, thedevelopment has been propelled by macro sentiment, reaching for yield-behavior, markettiming and firms outgrowing their dependency on bank capital.

The main purpose of this thesis is to develop methodological and practical improvements on robust portfolio optimization procedures. Firstly, the thesis discusses the drawbacks of classical mean-variance optimization models, and examines robust portfolio optimization procedures with CVaR and worst-case CVaR risk models by providing a clear presentation of derivation of robust optimization models from a basic VaR model. For practical purposes, the thesis introduces an open source software interface called “RobustRisk”, which is developed for producing empirical evidence for the robust portfolio optimization models. The software, which performs Monte-Carlo simulation and out-of-sample performance for the portfolio optimization, is introduced by using a hypothetical portfolio data from selected emerging markets. In addition, the performance of robust portfolio optimization procedures are discussed by providing empirical evidence in the crisis period from advanced markets. Empirical results show that robust optimization with worst-case CVaR model outperforms the nominal CVaR model in the crisis period. The empirical results encourage us to construct a forward-looking stress test procedure based on robust portfolio optimization under regime switches. For this purpose, the Markov chain process is embedded into robust optimization procedure in order to stress regime transition matrix. In addition, assets returns, volatilities, correlation matrix and covariance matrix can be stressed under pre-defined scenario expectations. An application is provided with a hypothetical portfolio representing an internationally diversified portfolio. The CVaR efficient frontier and corresponding optimized portfolio weights are achieved under regime switch scenarios. The research suggests that stressed-CVaR optimization provides a robust and forward-looking stress test procedure to comply with the regulatory requirements stated in Basel II and CRD regulations.

This study examines the trading activity of a large cross section of American bank holding companies upon various sub-events associated with the introduction of Basel III. An event study methodology was applied to various sub-composite portfolios, as determined by regulatory capitalization and leverage ratios. The results suggest that statically significant abnormal negative returns occurred on the announcement to negotiate due to heightened regulatory uncertainty, especially amongst the least capitalized and highest leveraged banks. However, this effect is complemented by statically significant positive returns upon the release of the initial guidelines. Reactions to subsequent events report to be less significant.

New liquidity rules introduced under the Basel III framework define the Net Stable Funding Ratio (NSFR) that requires banks to possess an adequate long-term liquidity. The NSFR will enter into force on January 1, 2018 and banks are concerned that this regulation will lower their profitability. In this thesis the Basel III liquidity rules are analysed. The research seeks to define characteristics and triggers of the NSFR, using a sample of 500 EU banks. We find that smaller banks (by asset size) are more likely to fulfil the NSFR requirements, so are the banks with higher non-interest share of income and lower capital ratio, among other characteristics. Further, the NSFR's impact on the banks' performance is assessed. It is found that a higher NSFR negatively impacts the return on average equity, although it does not seem to translate into lower returns on average assets nor net interest margin. JEL Classification E58, G21, G28, G32 Keywords NSFR, Basel III, liquidity, banks, EU, profitability, capital rules, regulation Author's e-mail 45724231@fsv.cuni.cz Supervisor's e-mail boril.sopov@gmail.com

Den finansiella sektorn i länderna som tillhör G-10 har styrts av specifika regelverk tillämpade för banker ända sedan 1988, och blev då uppkallat Basel I. Detta beror till stor del på konsekvenserna från de finansiella kriser som samhället erfarit. Allt för generös kreditgivning och högt risktagande från banker har lett till att hela världsekonomin satts i turbulens. Vid kommande årsskifte, 2012/2013, planeras en tredje version av regelverket att införas, Basel III, och kommer att beröra samtliga länder som tillhör G-20 där bland annat Sverige ingår. I denna uppsats har vi därför valt att undersöka hur pass kapabla Sveriges banker är att möta det kommande regelverket, då med fokus på deras kapitalanskaffning. Eftersom regelverket berör samtliga svenska banker har vi valt att göra en specifik jämförelse mellan en mindre svensk bank, Swedbank Sjuhärad, och de fyra storbankerna2 grupperade som ett gemensamt kluster. Vi har valt att intervjua två respondenter från Swedbank Sjuhärad samt en respondent från FI där den sistnämnda försökt ge en samlad bild över storbankernas förhållande till regelverket. Därutöver har insamlandet av empiri skett genom flertalet rapporter och bankernas årsredovisningar. Studien är en fallstudie av kvalitativ karaktär och en abduktiv ansats har använts.Vår forskningsfråga är: Hur påverkas en mindre banks kapitalanskaffning på grund av Basel III i förhållande till de fyra storbankerna? Syftet med studien är att undersöka om en mindre banks kapitalanskaffning påverkas annorlunda på grund av Basel III i förhållande till de fyra storbankerna. I sådana fall vill vi ta reda på vilka eventuella kostnader detta innebär.Vi anser att den främsta skillnaden mellan Swedbank Sjuhärad och de fyra storbankerna är att storbankerna i dagsläget har en mer diversifierad kapitalstruktur och investerarbild. Vi är av uppfattningen att denna skillnad successivt kommer minska över tid eftersom Swedbank Sjuhärad i allt högre grad tvingas efterlikna storbankerna i takt med implementeringen av Basel III. Vi anser att detta i sin tur kommer innebära ökade kostnader för Swedbank Sjuhärad då de till viss del tvingas gå ifrån sitt billigaste finansieringssätt vilket är inlåning på konto. Vidare är de operativa på en mindre marknad, genomför förhållandevis små emissioner och har inte lika igenkännande profil mot potentiella investerare. Enligt bankens egen uppfattning går stabilitet före lönsamhet på kort sikt. Detta är något som vi anser kan gynna Swedbank Sjuhärad framöver då det signaleras som ett vinnande koncept både från myndigheter och från samhället i stort. / Program: Civilekonomprogrammet

O custo elevado da crise financeira do subprime, que assolou a economia norte-americana nos últimos anos e provocou a intervenção estatal no salvamento de diversas Instituições Financeiras consideradas Grandes Demais para Falir, abriu espaço para o crescimento dos títulos Condicionalmente Conversíveis (CoCos). Trata-se de títulos que injetam capital automaticamente no balanço do banco sempre que o nível de capital fique abaixo de determinado parâmetro pré-estabelecido – chamado de gatilho – pela conversão da dívida em capital e com termos de conversão já estabelecidos em contrato. Essa é uma inovação do mercado que entrou no arcabouço de Basileia III e poderá exercer um importante papel na prevenção ao risco moral, uma vez que tais instrumentos permitem a divisão dos riscos entre o banco emissor do título e o investidor, retirando eventuais encargos dos recursos públicos de ter que salvar grandes empresas insolventes. Espera-se, assim, reduzir ou até mesmo eliminar o problema da existência de companhias Grandes Demais para Falir. Mas o mercado de CoCos, que são títulos híbridos, terá de se tornar mais líquido – de forma a atrair mais investidores – e buscar um caminho em torno da padronização nas emissões ao eliminar, principalmente, incertezas relacionadas ao nível do gatilho e aos termos de conversão. / The high cost of the 2007-08 subprime financial crisis that led to state intervention with the rescue of several financial institutions considered too big to fail made room for the growth of the contingent convertible bonds (CoCos). These securities automatically inject capital in the bank’s balance sheet when its capital level is below certain pre-set ratio (trigger), by converting debt into equity. Both trigger and conversion terms are established by contracts. This is a market innovation that has entered the Basel III framework and can play an important role in preventing moral hazard, since such instruments allow risk sharing between the issuing bank and CoCos investors, preventing government bailouts. CoCos are expected to reduce or even eliminate the existence of too big to fail companies. But these hybrids must provide more liquid markets – in order to attract more investors – and seek contracts standardization by eliminating mainly uncertainties related to the trigger level and conversion terms.

xi Abstract This thesis aims to provide eclectic legal and economic insight into the history, current principles and possible future development of bank capital adequacy regulation. We have worked with a variety of legal and economic literature and official Basel Committee publications. Our goal was to explore the economic background behind the Basel standards and find its legal ramifications and the incentives they create. In the first chapter, we analyze the economic rationale for banking regulation, explain possible methods of bank capital regulation and juxtapose them with other means of regulatory measures in the field of banking. The first chapter also gives overview of the Basel I framework, its implementation process, describes its utilization of new regulatory techniques, as well as its weaknesses. Second chapter provides overview of Basel II approval process and discusses its transparency and institutionary framework. Problematic issues of CRD directive in the Czech Republic are discussed in contrast with norms of due legislation process. In the next chapter, we describe the mechanics of the Basel II framework. In greater detail, we focus on the issues of securitization, off-balance sheet exposures and methods of "promise-shifting" in the financial system. Examples are used to illustrate the...