The South African Competition Commission has analysed most levels of the food supply chain by investigation of alleged anti-competitive behaviour by producers, input suppliers, storage companies, processors and retailers. The numbers of these cases include cartels and, to a lesser extent, restrictive vertical constraints and abuse of dominance position. Sexton (2012) states that the recent development in the agricultural market, where large companies are vertically integrating, renders the perfect competition model inappropriate. This brings doubt that the law based on perfect competition will work in oligopolistic markets. Despite the identified number of detected cartels in the grain industry, it might be possible that some cartels in other food chains are still undetected. Through the application of the market screening approach, the aim of this study is to establish whether the National Agricultural Marketing Council (“NAMC”) and the Competition Commission could have detected the bread cartel using secondary data in the absence of the information from the whistle-blower. As the first step, the study carried out a structural assessment of the bread industry. This assessment indicated that the bread market has a number of factors that may facilitate collusive behaviour. The study found that the history of information sharing played a crucial role for bakeries to coordinate their conduct. The second step was to conduct an in-depth behavioural assessment that focused on bread prices to see whether there has been a structural break in the period under investigation. The idea was to estimate the price equation of brown bread as a function of the SAFEX wheat price, petrol price (cost shifters), and 1 kg of maize meal (demand shifters). The study used the OLS to estimate three regressions using the data for the whole period and two sub-breaks (before the break point, and after the break point) to perform a Chow test. The question that the Chow test asked is: was there a structural break in March 2007, after the Competition Commission received the information from the whistle-blower? In other words, had the price of bread increased or decreased at a certain period without any changes in the demand or cost variable. The Null hypothesis states that there was no structural break, while the alternative hypothesis states that there was a structural break in March 2007. The Chow test result shows that at a 5 per cent significant level, the F-critical value is F_5, 90 = 2.68 and the F test statistics is 20.59 with a p value of 0.00. This indicates that we cannot reject the null hypothesis and conclude that a structural break did not occur in March 2007. The screening approached failed to prove the existence of cartel in the bread industry. Therefore, the study concludes that in the absence of the whistle-blower, it would not have been easy for the Competition Commission and the NAMC (2009) to detect a cartel by just using secondary data. This proves that screening alone cannot prove the existence of cartel without prior knowledge of the conduct and of the industry as a whole. Nevertheless, a market screening approach is important as it can be used as a warning mechanism to detect an emerging cartel, since it can flag potentially suspicious behaviour. Nevertheless, this calls for the policy makers to combine the scoping study by the Competition Commission and the monitoring of food prices by the NAMC, as this will provide the best enforcement tool in detecting cartel behaviour in the food industry. / Dissertation (MInst Agrar)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / tm2015 / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / MInst Agrar / Unrestricted

The aim of this diploma thesis is to restore awareness of the Czech sugar industry tradition. For this intention I chose Nymburk sugar factory in an era, when one of the most important personas of Czech sugar industry Hanuš Karlík was its director. The thesis consists of a brief introduction to the history of Czech sugar industry, where the establishment of Nymburk sugar factory is set, followed by a description of the period when Hanuš Karlík was the director and how his administration influenced both Nymburk sugar factory and sugar industry in general. In the conclusion, there is a view on the sugar factory after Karlík left and the fate of the sugar factory that led to an infamous end. The work is primarly based on local archival sources, memoirs and newspappers. Several books about the history of Nymburk and about common history of sugar industry are used to set the topic in a wider historical context.

The Swedish brewery industry has historically been through multiple waves of mergers &amp; acquisitions (M&amp;A), resulting in consolidation of the industry – a trend also seen in other countries. The driving forces behind such waves and the functions of cartels are subjects of debate, and there is more to discover regarding the historical Swedish brewery cartel and the firms that were active in the industry. The purpose of this bachelor’s thesis is to analyze how M&amp;A have been used as a tool to restructure industries and to further understand how historical actors and institutions interacted. It applies institutional and network theory to conduct a case study, aiming to deepen understanding of how M&amp;A was used to reshape the brewery industry around the city of Gävle between 1920 and 1945: from several local firms to a single regional monopoly. Primary source material has mainly been gathered from archives deposited in the Gävle municipal archives, consisting primarily of protocols and records from firms which were active in the city during the timeframe. This material has been analyzed using predominantly, though not exclusively, qualitative and historical methods. Several key results have emerged from this research. A multitude of driving forces was acting in favor of consolidation. There was a stable network between certain firms prior to any joint M&amp;A-activity. The economic shock of the second world war brought additional pressure, in particular regarding distribution possibilities for the firms, to consolidate. The cartel took an active role and worked in favor of consolidation through M&amp;A-activity – however the cartels power on a local level was also surprisingly limited. In this case, M&amp;A served as a tool in the interaction between actor and institution, used to bring firms in compliance with the cartel system and to reduce the total number of firms. / <p>Slutgiltigt godkännandedatum: 2024-01-12</p>

La calidad e importancia del diseño gráfico desarrollado en Alemania en la primera mitad del siglo XX está fuera de toda duda, así como sus aportaciones al panorama gráfico internacional. La Segunda Guerra Mundial y la división de Alemania tras la firma de la Capitulación supusieron una gran brecha en la evolución del mismo. El objeto de la presente investigación es determinar la evolución del lenguaje visual -y con ello de los diferentes elementos del diseño gráfico- dentro de la República Democrática Alemana, en relación con la evolución experimentada en los años previos y con el sistema social y político existente. Para lograrlo, tras un análisis cualitativo basado en la bibliografía disponible, se procede al análisis del lenguaje visual de una muestra de 525 carteles desarrollados a lo largo de toda la historia de la RDA. A fin de realizar una investigación metódica diseñaremos un sistema de análisis del lenguaje visual propio, tomando como punto de partida los sistemas de análisis existentes más relevantes. Paralelamente analizaremos la tipografía diseñada y producida dentro de la VEB Typoart, siendo esta la única empresa dedicada al desarrollo de tipos. Los datos obtenidos nos permiten establecer una evolución y periodización del diseño y su relación tanto con la evolución del diseño previo a 1945 como con los acontecimientos socio-políticos más relevantes. / Gutiérrez Rodríguez, E. (2012). INFLUENCIA DE LA SBZ/RDA EN LA EVOLUCIÓN DE LOS ELEMENTOS DEL DISEÑO GRÁFICO EN ALEMANIA: COMPOSICIÓN, TIPOGRAFÍA E IMAGEN. UNA PROPUESTA METODOLÓGICA [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/15229

A presente tese de doutorado tem por objetivo demonstrar que a atividade probatória conduzida pelo Conselho Administrativo de Defesa Econômica - CADE, nos processos administrativos de investigação de cartéis, apresenta deficiências e demanda aperfeiçoamento. Para comprovação da tese, foi revisada a jurisprudência do órgão em um período de 15 anos (1999-2014), identificando-se as características e os procedimentos relacionados a essa que é a mais importante etapa dos processos sancionadores: a reconstrução histórica dos fatos controversos. No primeiro capítulo, são examinados o poder de polícia do CADE, suas formas de manifestação, a infração de cartel, a estrutura da autoridade, os tipos de processo, as penalidades e os poderes de investigação. No segundo capítulo, a abordagem recai sobre o objeto, os meios, os modos de obtenção e os momentos da prova. No terceiro capítulo, são identificados os fatores que causam deficiências à atividade probatória à luz do contraditório e da paridade de armas, princípios que devem nortear o exercício da função administrativa. Com base nesse diagnóstico, as notas conclusivas apresentam propostas de aprimoramento da atuação do CADE no campo probatório, que podem contribuir para a tomada de decisões mais céleres, robustas e legítimas. / This doctoral thesis aims at demonstrating that the evidentiary activity conducted by the Administrative Council for Economic Defense - CADE, in cartel investigation administrative proceedings, presents deficiencies and requires improvement. For this purpose, CADEs case law for the past 15 years (1999-2014) has been reviewed to identify the characteristics and proceedings related to this stage of the sanctioning process, which is the most important one: the historical reconstruction of the disputed facts. In the first chapter, the following items are discussed: CADEs police power and how it is exercised, cartel violations, authority structure, types of proceedings, penalties, and powers of investigation. In the second chapter, the focus is on the evidence object and phases, means of evidence and means of gathering evidence. In the third chapter, the factors that cause deficiencies to the evidentiary activity are reviewed in light of the adversarial and equality of arms principles that must guide the fulfillment of the administrative function. Based on this diagnosis, the conclusions present proposals to improve CADEs operations in the evidentiary field, which may contribute to render the decision-making process more expedite, solid, and legitimate.

Com as mudanças do mundo moderno surgiu uma justificada preocupação global com a crescente prática de delitos contra a ordem econômica e a dificuldade que as autoridades enfrentam para apurá-los. Para socorrê-las surge o acordo de leniência, instrumento de investigação altamente eficaz de ampla aplicação em nações estrangeiras. Mas não por isso, este instituto deve ser importado ao nosso ordenamento tal qual utilizado em terras alienígenas, ignorando-se os direitos do delator e em flagrante desrespeito aos princípios constitucionais. Diante dessa problemática, o presente trabalho tem por objetivo realizar uma análise crítica acerca deste acordo e dos reflexos que provoca no âmbito penal, a fim de serem detectadas as falhas e incongruências de seu procedimento, bem como os seus aspectos inconstitucionais e, com isso, contribuir para a sua adequação ao ordenamento jurídico e seu desenvolvimento como meio de investigação para o combate aos crimes contra a ordem econômica, sobretudo, a formação de cartel. Em vista disso, será feito um estudo inicial sobre a relação entre Direito e Economia, Direito Concorrencial, seus interesses e a necessidade de tutela, inclusive pela via penal, da concorrência pelo Estado. Posteriormente, passar-se-á à análise das condutas anticoncorrenciais e dos crimes contra a ordem econômica, constatando-se os empecilhos para a investigação de tais delitos. A partir deste exame, far-se-á uma apresentação do acordo de leniência, suas origens, sua regulamentação em outros países para, então, a par das preocupações éticas que o circundam, realizar uma apreciação crítica dos efeitos que provoca na esfera penal. Ao final, em concordância com a necessidade de se manter o instituto, o presente trabalho buscará sanar as deficiências da atual legislação sobre o tema e, inclusive, da recémaprovada Lei nº 12.529/2011 , propondo alterações que visam minimizar a discricionariedade, o subjetivismo e a insegurança jurídica que permeiam o acordo, de modo a adequá-lo aos ditames constitucionais e torná-lo mais atraente aos candidatos. / The modern world has undergone changes that justify the global concern with the increasing occurrence of criminal offenses against the economic order and with the difficulty the authorities face to ascertain them by investigation. Precisely to aid the authorities, looms the leniency agreement, a highly effective investigation instrument of broad use in foreign countries. In spite of that, this institute shall not be imported to our legal system as regularly applied abroad ignoring the rights of the delator and of flagrant disrespect to constitutional principles. Before this issue, the current paper has the objective to promote a critical analysis concerning the leniency agreement and the reflexes it triggers in the criminal field, in order to evidence the flaws and incompatibility of its procedure, as well as its unconstitutional aspects, by that, be able to contribute with its suitability to the criminal systemand to its development as a mean of investigation to fight crimes against the economic order, overall, the formation of cartel. Due to that, an initial study is proposed about the relation between Law and Economics, Competition Law, their interests and the need of tutelage containing the criminal manner and the competition by the State. Later, an analysis of anti-competitive conducts and of crimes against the economic order containing the impediments to the investigation of such criminal offenses. Resulting from this examination, there will be a presentation of the leniency agreement, its origins, regulations in other countries, so that, in addition to the ethical concerns that surround the agreement, be possible the fulfillment of critical appraisal to the effects it causes in the criminal field. Finally, in accordance to the need to support the institute, the current paper seeks to heal the gaps of the current legislation related to the theme including, the newly approved Law number 12.529/2011 proposing changes that aim at minimizing the discretion, subjectivism and juridical insecurity that permeates the agreement, in a way to adequate it to the constitutional precepts and make it become more engaging to the candidates.

A presente dissertação de mestrado visa a estudar a responsabilidade civil por danos decorrentes da prática de cartel, a qual é considerada como a mais grave infração à ordem econômica. No primeiro capítulo, o fenômeno do cartel é estudado sob a perspectiva econômica, analisando-se as principais características e efeitos da conduta. No segundo capítulo, examina-se a disciplina jurídica do cartel no direito brasileiro, estudando-se as normas que preveem a responsabilização pela prática de cartel na lei concorrencial e na esfera penal. O terceiro capítulo pretende analisar os objetivos e o papel da responsabilidade civil no contexto mais amplo da política de defesa da concorrência. O quarto capítulo estuda a reparação civil dos danos decorrentes do cartel no direito federal norte-americano e no direito comunitário europeu. O quinto capítulo examina a responsabilidade civil por danos decorrentes da prática de cartel no direito brasileiro. Nesse contexto, são examinados os pressupostos da reparação civil (ato ilícito, culpa, nexo causal e dano), a legitimidade ativa e passiva para as ações indenizatórias, a interação entre a responsabilidade civil e o programa de leniência, bem como a prescrição da pretensão indenizatória. No sexto capítulo, são analisadas algumas propostas de reforma do ordenamento jurídico brasileiro para aperfeiçoamento do sistema de reparação civil em matéria de cartel. Finalmente, a conclusão procura expor de maneira sistematizada as principais ideias apresentadas ao longo do trabalho, bem como avaliar o estágio atual da responsabilidade civil por danos decorrentes da prática de cartel no direito brasileiro. / This dissertation aims to study the civil liability for damages arising from cartel behavior, which is considered the most serious antitrust violation. The first chapter studies the cartel from an economic perspective, analyzing the key features and effects of the conduct. The second chapter examines the legal framework regarding cartel behavior under Brazilian law, by studying the rules that provide for the responsibility for cartel under antitrust law and at the criminal level. The third chapter aims to analyze the objectives and the role of civil liability in the broader context of antitrust policy. The fourth chapter studies the civil liability for damages arising from cartel behavior in US federal law and European Community law. The fifth chapter examines the civil liability for damages resulting from cartel behavior in Brazilian law. In this context, the chapter examines the requisites for civil liability (tort, fault, causation and damage), standing to sue and to be sued, the interaction between the indemnification claims and the leniency program, as well as the statute of limitations. The sixth chapter discusses some proposals to reform the Brazilian legal framework with the purpose of improving the system of civil liability concerning cartel behavior. Finally, the conclusion seeks to expose in a systematic way the main ideas presented throughout the work, and to assess the current state of civil liability for damages resulting from cartel behavior in Brazilian law.

A presente tese de doutorado tem por objetivo demonstrar que a atividade probatória conduzida pelo Conselho Administrativo de Defesa Econômica - CADE, nos processos administrativos de investigação de cartéis, apresenta deficiências e demanda aperfeiçoamento. Para comprovação da tese, foi revisada a jurisprudência do órgão em um período de 15 anos (1999-2014), identificando-se as características e os procedimentos relacionados a essa que é a mais importante etapa dos processos sancionadores: a reconstrução histórica dos fatos controversos. No primeiro capítulo, são examinados o poder de polícia do CADE, suas formas de manifestação, a infração de cartel, a estrutura da autoridade, os tipos de processo, as penalidades e os poderes de investigação. No segundo capítulo, a abordagem recai sobre o objeto, os meios, os modos de obtenção e os momentos da prova. No terceiro capítulo, são identificados os fatores que causam deficiências à atividade probatória à luz do contraditório e da paridade de armas, princípios que devem nortear o exercício da função administrativa. Com base nesse diagnóstico, as notas conclusivas apresentam propostas de aprimoramento da atuação do CADE no campo probatório, que podem contribuir para a tomada de decisões mais céleres, robustas e legítimas. / This doctoral thesis aims at demonstrating that the evidentiary activity conducted by the Administrative Council for Economic Defense - CADE, in cartel investigation administrative proceedings, presents deficiencies and requires improvement. For this purpose, CADEs case law for the past 15 years (1999-2014) has been reviewed to identify the characteristics and proceedings related to this stage of the sanctioning process, which is the most important one: the historical reconstruction of the disputed facts. In the first chapter, the following items are discussed: CADEs police power and how it is exercised, cartel violations, authority structure, types of proceedings, penalties, and powers of investigation. In the second chapter, the focus is on the evidence object and phases, means of evidence and means of gathering evidence. In the third chapter, the factors that cause deficiencies to the evidentiary activity are reviewed in light of the adversarial and equality of arms principles that must guide the fulfillment of the administrative function. Based on this diagnosis, the conclusions present proposals to improve CADEs operations in the evidentiary field, which may contribute to render the decision-making process more expedite, solid, and legitimate.

A presente pesquisa objetiva analisar os principais aspectos relacionados ao tema de danos em cartel: sobrepreço, efeito repasse (pass-on) e multa ótima. Com o aumento de políticas de combate a cartéis, pelo sério caráter lesivo à concorrência e à sociedade, intensificaram-se os esforços para estimar o impacto econômico no bem-estar provocado por tais condutas. O estudo confirma que a principal medida de dano econômico do cartel é o sobrepreço, ainda que os demais fatores, como o repasse (pass-on) e o efeito perda de vendas também devam ser considerados na mensuração do dano privado. Metodologias para o cálculo destes três componentes foram mapeadas, revelando que as técnicas disponíveis não são complexas, até fáceis de serem aplicadas, quando se tem amplo acesso a dados. Como avaliação empírica, apresenta-se o caso inédito do cartel dos compressores, sobre danos causados por tão nociva prática, comprovando-se que os valores de sobrepreço calculado estão em linha com a literatura. Por fim, a tese apresenta o histórico de multas impostas por autoridades, em casos de cartel, em diversas jurisdições, e questiona a efetividade dos montantes aplicados para devida dissuasão ou restabelecimento do bem-estar à sociedade. Análise de casos condenados pelo CADE recentemente mostram que as multas não têm sido suficientes para impor dissuasão, recomendando-se o uso de parâmetros que tragam racionalidade econômica e desestimulem as práticas anticompetitivas. / The present research had the aim of analyzing the main aspects related to cartel damages: overcharge, pass-on effect and optimal fine. With the growth of anti-cartel enforcement efforts and given the detrimental nature of conduct, efforts to estimate the economic impact on the welfare have increased. The study shows that the main measure of economic damage of the cartel is the overcharge, although other factors such as the pass-on effect and the output effect cannot be neglected in the calculation of private damage. Methodologies for these three components were mapped, revealing that the available techniques are not complex and even easy to apply when data is available. An empirical evaluation is presented using an unprecedented in the Brazilian market \"compressors cartel case\", showing an overcharge in line with the literature. Finally, the thesis presents the history of fines imposed by authorities in cartel cases in several jurisdictions and questions the effectiveness of the amounts applied for a proper deterrence or restoration of welfare to society. Case studies condemned by CADE recently show that fines have not been sufficient to impose deterrence, recommending the use of parameters that bring economic rationality and discourage anticompetitive practices.

A dissertação analisa os danos decorrentes dos efeitos gerados pelos cartéis sob a ótica da responsabilidade civil, visando identificar os prejuízos gerados aos consumidores e demais compradores dos produtos que sofrem a ação do cartel. Primeiro, são analisadas as estruturas de mercado que propiciam a formação dos cartéis e a sua definição sob os aspectos econômico e jurídico. Após os efeitos gerados pelos cartéis são verificados e agrupados de acordo com as lesões provocadas pelas decisões dos cartelistas para viabilizar a apreciação dos danos gerados. Tais danos correspondem à parte dos requisitos necessários para a configuração da responsabilidade civil, que recai sobre os membros do cartel e os obriga a indenizar todos os prejudicados por suas práticas, sejam eles pessoas físicas ou jurídicas ou mesmo a sociedade como um todo. Nesse sentido, os prejuízos gerados pelos cartéis podem ser individuais ou coletivos, o que varia de acordo com o bem jurídico atingido, interferindo sobre os meios disponíveis para a obtenção da indenização. Essa abordagem facilita a identificação dos danos decorrentes dos efeitos produzidos pelos cartéis para que se busque a plena indenização dos prejudicados. / The dissertation analyses the damages arising from the effects of cartel practices under the tort point of view, in order to identify loses generated to consumers and other purchasers of products which were harmed by the cartel practices. First, the present work examines the market structures which allow cartel development and its economic and legal definitions. Afterward, the effects generated by cartels are verified and grouped according to the injuries caused by the decisions taken by the cartel members; this enables the appreciation of the damages produced. Such damages refer to part of the necessary requisites for the configuration of tort, which falls upon cartel members and compels them to indemnify all those injured by their practices, either individuals or legal entities, or even the society as a whole. In this sense, the damages arising from cartel practices could be individual or collective, varying according to the involved asset, influencing the available means to obtain the indemnification. This approach helps to identify the damages resulting from the effects of cartel practices in order to pursue the full compensation of the offended.