La politique de réforme et de modernisation de l’État engagée par les gouvernements français successifs a visé à mettre l’organisation territoriale de la République aux standards des grandes démocraties occidentales comme l’indique l’avant-propos du dernier projet de loi de décentralisation. La question du nombre de communes en France est partie prenante de cette réflexion. C’est ainsi que la loi du 16 décembre 2010, sous l’influence du rapport rendu par le comité Balladur en mars 2009 et qui s’intitulait «il est temps de décider » a eu pour ambition d’engager la création d’un nouveau dispositif de fusion de communes : «la commune nouvelle». L’objectif est de poser les fondements de la commune du 21ème siècle en facilitant les fusions de communes par l'amélioration du système né de la loi Marcellin du 16 juillet 1971 qui avait connu un succès limité. La récente proposition de loi déposée par le député maire de Lons le Saunier Jacques Pélissard vise à « consolider, améliorer et rendre plus attractif le dispositif de commune nouvelle dans un contexte de nécessaire optimisation de notre organisation territoriale. » 3) Les enjeux : La France et l’Europe font face à une métamorphose économique qui les oblige à s’interroger sur leur organisation administrative. La construction européenne, la mondialisation, et le contexte de crise généralisée auquel la France est confrontée l’oblige à s’interroger sur l’efficacité de ses structures publiques. L’organisation territoriale de la France est-elle à même de répondre aux exigences d’action publiques que le 21ème siècle exige ? Une structure pluriséculaires comme la commune peut elle se moderniser pour faire face ? Bon nombre de pays voisins de la France ont drastiquement réduit le nombre de leurs communes. Le Royaume uni possède 4000 seulement pour une population comparable à celle de la France. Mais s’arrêter à la dimension financière ou structurelle de la commune cacherait le fait que la décentralisation est d’abord et avant tout un processus démocratique et historique. La commune occupe une place centrale dans ce dispositif démocratique français. 4) La problématique :Ce tableau général de la France du début du 21ème siècle nous amène à nous interroger sur la nature de ce nouveau régime. Quels sont les ressorts, les enjeux et les perspectives du régime des « communes nouvelles » et que nous dit-il sur l’avenir de la commune en France? Par la commune nouvelle, assiste-t-on au renforcement de la commune? Ou assiste-t-on au contraire à une dynamique de disparition progressive de la commune au profit d’ensembles plus larges, le régime de commune nouvelles étant un outil de plus de la transformation des structures territoriales historiques par la recherche d’un optimum de l’efficacité. Cette approche nous amènera nécessairement à nous interroger sur le rapport entre la commune nouvelle et l'intercommunalité. La commune nouvelle est-elle la forme la plus aboutie de l’intercommunalité? / The communal fragmentation is at the origin of the communal crisis. The size of the communal perimeters is indeed inadequate to the needs of the citizens and leads to the marginalization of French municipalities. The merger of municipalities is a response to this situation. The latter has not, for the time, substantially reduce the number of municipalities. Created in 2010, the "commune nouvelle" aims to revive the process of fusion. It is therefore a question of defining the impact of this new fusion regime on the municipality. If the "commune nouvelle" first allows the strengthening of municipalities in their means of action, it also endorses a renewal of their institutions. These two dynamics must be assessed in view of the growing importance of intercommunality. It has long appeared as a competitor of the merger of municipalities. However, the law now imposes inter-municipal cooperation to ail municipalities including "communes nouvelles". This obligation does not condemn the latter to marginality. Indeed, the increase of intermunicipal perimeters recorded in 2015, promotes the emergence of a need of proximity that the majority of municipalities are not able to assume given their size. The development of the "commune nouvelle" is therefore useful to the good govemance of the municipal bloc. It can contain the continuous growth of intercommunality and thus mark the great return of the municipality in the French territorial architecture.

Den våldsamma konflikten på Moluckerna (1999-2002) porträtteras ibland i termer av motsättningar mellan kristna och muslimer. Denna studie problematiserar den bilden genom att analysera flera konfliktfaktorer som belyses ur två perspektiv.Det första syftet med denna studie var att jämföra tidigare forskning gällande konfliktfaktorer i Moluckerna med lokala ungdomars perception. Det finns en forskningslucka rörande ungdomarnas upplevelser av konflikten, vilket denna studie syftar till att överbrygga. Ett andra syfte var att analysera diskrepansen mellan den akademiska litteraturen och ungdomarnas underifrånperspektiv.Det avslutande syftet var att applicera teorin om kollektiv skuldkänsla för att förklara och analysera ungdomarnas minnen och uppfattningar om konfliktfaktorerna i Moluckerna. En kvalitativ fallstudieansats har valts eftersom den kan inkludera både djupintervjuer och en litteraturgenomgång. Sex djupintervjuer genomfördes i Indonesien som utforskade ungdomarnas uppfattningar. Den källkritiskt granskade litteraturgenomgången användes för att erhålla data från sekundärkällor angående samma konfliktfaktorer, som undersöktes I samband med intervjuerna.Den första delen av analysen visade att det finns en diskrepans mellan de två perspektiven när det gäller några av konfliktfaktorerna. Analysen av kollektiv skuldkänsla visade att ungdomarna bara upplevde en begränsad känsla av kollektiv skuld. Detta berodde på att alla strategier som minskar den kollektiva skuldkänslan var representerade i ungdomarnas uppfattningar. Den mest använda strategin var att beskylla några "svarta får", eller i detta fall, några provokatörer för skadan den egna gruppen orsakat den motsatta gruppen. / The violent conflict in the Moluccas (1999-2002) has occasionally been portrayed in terms of animosities between Christians and Muslims. This study problematizes that statement by analysing several conflict drivers seen through two perspectives.The first purpose of this study was to contrast previous research regarding conflict factors in the Moluccas to the perceptions of the local youths’. There is a research gap regarding the youths’ experiences of the conflict, which this study aims to bridge. A second purpose was to analyse discrepancy between the academic literature and the youths’ bottom-up perspective. The final purpose was to apply the theory of collective guilt to explain and analyse the youths’ memories and perceptions regarding the conflict factors in the Moluccas. A qualitative case study approach was adopted since it could include both in-depth interviews and an assessed literature review. Six in-depth interviews were conducted in Indonesia which explored the youth’s perceptions. The critically assessed literature review was used to obtain data from secondary sources regarding the same conflict factors, as was explored by the interviews.The first part of the analysis exposed a discrepancy between the two perspectives regarding some of the conflict factors. The collective guilt analysis found that the youths only seem to experience a rather limited feeling of collective guilt. This is because all strategies to reduce collective guilt were represented in the youths’ perceptions. The most used strategy was to blame a few ‘black sheep’, or in this context a few provocateurs for the harm inflicted by the in-group, towards the out-group.

Thesis (LLM )-- University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis discusses the efficacy of procedures involving communal participation in the management of land by communal property associations, and how this contributes to the promotion of security of tenure as envisaged by the South African Land Reform programme. The Communal Property Associations Act 28 of 1996 (CPA Act) is aimed at regulating communal living arrangements to create security of tenure for its respective landholders. However, the general opinion of commentators in the land reform sector has continued to be that communal property institutions are ineffective and generally fail. Many assert that problems experienced are symptoms of a wider weakness relating to the institutional design of the juristic person, its regulation and the support it receives. To determine the strength of this assertion, the concept and conditions of security of tenure in South African law, and the obstacles hampering it, are investigated. Security of tenure is especially important as it provides a foundation from which land holders can exercise their rights productively. This is followed by an overview of the existing legal mechanisms for communal living arrangements that are similar to the arrangements catered for in the CPA Act. One of these arrangements, namely the Sectional Titles Act is used to compare mechanisms similar to the establishment and management procedures in the CPA Act. The main conclusion regarding establishment procedures is that many of the provisions of the CPA Act are not being implemented properly. While some institutional problems exist and must be addressed, negotiation with and guidance by the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform are necessary to overcome such problems. An inadequate establishment process will only lead to problems and conflict in the management phase that could hamper security of tenure. Communal property associations are managed by an organisation structure comprising of a juristic person, a committee and the community. The thesis shows that committee members often lack the necessary training to fulfil their duties adequately. The CPA Act also allow communal property associations too much discretion in allocating powers and functions of the committee that can lead to paralysis in decision-making processes. The Department Rural Development and Land Reform has extensive powers to monitor and intervene in matters of the association if problems exist, but in practice such measures are not resorted to. These problems create dysfunction in many communal property associations. While the CPA Act can provide security of tenure for communities, the most significant obstacle is the lack of support from the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform in implementing the provisions of the CPA Act. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis handel oor die doeltreffendheid van die prosedures rondom die deelname van gemeenskappe aan die bestuur van grond in gemeenskaplike eiendomsverenigings, en hoe dit bydra tot die bevordering van die onaantasbaarheid van grondregte, soos beoog deur die Suid-Afrikaanse grondhervormingsprogram. Die Communal Property Associations Act 28 of 1996 (CPA Wet) het ten doel om gemeenskaplike bewoning van grond te reguleer ten einde om sekerheid vir houers van grond in die hand te werk. Die heersende mening van kommentatore in die grondhervormingsektor is nietemin nog steeds dat gemeenskaplike eiendomsinstellings ondoeltreffend is, en oor die algemeen misluk. Verskeie kommentatore doen aan die hand dat die heersende probleme simptome is van onderliggende tekortkominge in die wyse waarop die regspersoon saamgestel word en hoe dit gereguleer en ondersteun word. Ten einde hierdie opvatting te deurgrond, word daar in hierdie tesis gekyk na die omstandighede waaronder onaantasbaarheid van grondregte bewerkstellig kan word in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg, en na die struikelblokke wat bestaan om heirdie doel te bereik. Onaantasbaarheid van grondregte is belangrik, veral omdat dit die basis is waarop houers van grond in staat gestel word om hul regte produktief uit te oefen. Hierna volg ‘n oorsig van die bestaande regsmeganismes vir gemeenskaplike bewoning van grond, wat soortgelyk is aan dié van die CPA Wet. Een sodanige opset is die Deeltitelswet, wat gebruik word om soortgelyke meganismes vir die totstandkoming van en die bestuursprosedures van die CPA Wet te vergelyk. Die gevolgtrekking met betrekking tot totstandkomingsprosedures is dat die bepalings van die CPA Wet nie behoorlik in werking gestel is nie. Benewens die institusionele probleme wat aangespreek moet word, is onderhandeling met en leiding deur die Departement van Landelike Ontwikkeling en Grondhervorming nodig, om bestaande struikelblokke uit die weg te ruim. ‘n Ontoereikende totstandkomingsproses sal slegs lei tot verdere probleme en geskille in die latere bestuur van die skema wanneer die skema bestuur moet word. Dit werk onsekerheid m.b.t. die grondregte in die hand. Die bestuurstruktuur van gemeenskaplike eiendomsverenigings bestaan uit ‘n regspersoon, ‘n komitee en die gemeenskap. Die tesis dui aan dat komiteelede dikwels nie voldoende opgelei is om hul funksies behoorlik te vervul nie. Die CPA Wet maak ook voorsiening vir te veel diskresionêre begoegdhede in die akte van oprigting en die bepalings omtrent die funksies van die komitee, wat die besluitnemingsproses kan lamlê. Die Departement van Plaaslike Ontwikkeling en Grondhervorming het verreikende magte m.b.t monitering en intervensie in die sake van die verenigings, waar probleme bestaan. In die praktyk word hierdie bevoegdhede egter nie aangewend soos beoog nie. Die probleme versoorsaak dat gemeenkskaplike eiendomsverenigings nie na behore funksioneer nie. Die wetsbepalings kan onaantasbaarheid van grondregte vir gemeenskappe in die hand werk, maar die grootste struikelblok is die behoorlike implementering van die wetsbepalings.

Thesis (MScConsEcol (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / The widespread ecological impacts of overgrazing by livestock within the Succulent Karoo have received considerable attention. Literature shows communal and commercial rangelands have been thoroughly studied, and vegetation responses have been investigated in an attempt to understand the effects of overgrazing. Regarding animal species, literature is in short supply. In a one-year study of small mammal assemblages, the effect of the rangelands, and subsequently vegetation, on small mammal assemblages was examined, as well as the effects on number of occupied, unoccupied and collapsed burrows. This study shows that vegetation composition differs between rangelands, with a greater perennial shrub cover on the communal rangelands and a greater perennial succulent cover on commercial rangelands, consequently creating different habitats for animal assemblages. This study supports the notion of small mammal composition relating to vegetation structure, with certain species being impacted by heavy grazing. Four small mammal species were found in greater abundances on commercial rangelands, with one being exclusive, while communal rangelands were exclusively occupied by three nocturnal species. Diet and habitat requirements are the most important factors regarding species occurrence. With small mammal species composition differing between rangelands, and species richness not being affected by rangeland type, this study illustrates that the disappearance of certain species may arise without these different rangelands. This could result in reduced species richness, and thus diversity being lost. Regarding species present on both rangelands, no differences were observed in body mass, body size or body condition. Despite no differences found in body condition, calculating a body condition index is a good method for investigating how a species is coping within an environment. The proportion and number of occupied and collapsed burrows can be seen as a measure of trampling effect. It was expected for grazing intensity, as well as vegetation changes, to affect the occurrence of such burrows. This study showed differences between the communal and commercial rangelands as negligible. As expected, numbers of burrowing small mammal species were negatively correlated with numbers of collapsed burrows. However, a lack of consistency deemed this result unimportant. Results show that the effects of overgrazing on small mammal populations are complex and require more attention if to be fully explained. This study provides insights into the effects of land use on small mammals and burrow numbers, which have implications for the conservation of these species within arid regions.

台北地區郊區人口成長快速，而且近年來在近郊出現許多大型的住宅社區，根據國外 都市發展的例子，如任由郊區發展，則易形成都蘉延的現象，並且浪費公共投資。因 此本論文以新店安坑地區為研究地區，探討近郊社區的開發，對鄰近地區土地利用的 影響，以為有關單位的參考。本論文共分五章，十五節，四萬餘字。茲分列如下﹕ 第一章 緒論 第一節 問題陳述 第二節 問題分析 第三節 研究目的與基本假設 第二章 文獻回顧 第三章 研究方法 第一節 研究地區 第二節 研究設計 第四章 分析與發現 第一節 台北小城與玫瑰中國城居民社經背景分析 第二節 研究地區住宅土地利用現況 第三節 研究地區住宅土地利用發展潛力分析 第四節 研究地區商業土地利用供給面之研究 第五節 研究地區商業土地利用需求面之研究 第六節 研究地區商業土地利用之綜合分析 第五章 結論與建議

In much existing literature the incidence of sexual violence during Hindu-Muslim conflict has been attributed to the militant ideology of Hindu nationalism. This thesis interrogates this view. It first examines the ideological framework laid down by the founding ideologues of the Hindu nationalist movement with respect to sexual violence. I argue that a justification of sexual violence against Muslim women is at the core of their ideology. In order to examine how this ideology has contributed to the actual incidents, this thesis studies the episodes of Hindu-Muslim violence that occurred in 1969, 1985, 1992 and 2002 in the western Indian city of Ahmedabad, Gujarat. An examination of these episodes shows that sexual violence against Muslim women, in both extreme and less extreme forms, were significantly motivated by Hindu nationalist ideology. However, in addition to this ideology, patriarchal ideas that serve to normalize sexual violence as ‘sex’ and sanction its infliction to maintain gendered hierarchies also motivated such crimes. Moreover, this thesis argues that the manifestation of Hindu nationalist and patriarchal motivations in acts of sexual violence was enabled by the breakdown of neighbourhood ties between Hindus and Muslims in 1969 and 2002. By contrast, during the 1985 and 1992 riots Hindus and Muslims strengthened neighbourhood ties despite extensive communal mobilization, which seems to have prevented the perpetration of extreme sexual violence against Muslim women. Thus, by providing a comprehensive analysis of the contribution of Hindu nationalist ideology, and arguing for the significance of the patriarchal ideas and neighbourhood ties in the infliction of sexual violence during conflict, this study contributes to and departs from the existing literature.

Aux XIVe et XVe siècles, la plupart des villes d’Italie centrale expérimente des gouvernements seigneuriaux. Camerino passe sous la domination des da Varano, Fabriano des Chiavelli et Foligno des Trinci. Ces familles obtiennent de la commune la reconnaissance de leur pouvoir et du pape d’importantes délégations d’autorité. À côté de ces piliers de leur légitimité, elles en construisent un troisième ne dépendant que d’elles-mêmes. Le pouvoir devient dynastique, il repose sur des qualités individuelles et familiales. Les seigneuries développent une véritable politique de communication. L’urbanisme, l’architecture, la peinture mais aussi la littérature sont les médias principaux qu’elles utilisent pour élaborer l’image de bons dirigeants. Cette dernière est d’abord étudiée, ici, à partir des peintures murales des résidences familiales. De telles réalisations ne sont pas le reflet déformé d’une domination, elles sont des actes de gouvernement qui contribuent au bien commun et à l’honneur de la ville. Elles sont encore un instrument de renommée et l’expression de vertus singulières, telle la magnificence, qui justifient le pouvoir personnel. La commande artistique place la famille dominante au cœur de l’histoire de la ville. Elle la situe dans la continuité des institutions communales dont elle reste dépendante. En ville et dans le contado, les images présentent également une hégémonie de plus en plus enracinée dans la succession dynastique et appuyée par une cour restreinte. Elles parviennent ainsi à faire cohabiter les légitimations contradictoires d’un pouvoir patrimonialisé mais présenté comme conforme aux traditions et aux intérêts de la communauté. / In the 14th and 15th centuries, most cities in Central Italy fell under the rule of powerful families. Camerino saw the rise of the Varanos, Fabriano of the Chiavellis, and Foligno of the Trincis. As communal authorities ended up acknowledging their power, the Popes also agreed to handing out to them significant delegations of their authority. While the two most important foundational aspects of their legitimacy laid there, these families were able to build on a third one that depended on themselves and on themselves alone. Their power became dynastic.Urban lords developed genuine communication policies. Town planning, architecture, commission of paintings as well as of literary works where the most useful tools in the building up of their image as good leaders. This study first explores this achievement by examining wall-paintings in family residences. Such works should be regarded as acts of government perceived as contributions to honor of the city. As instruments of fame, they also manifested singular virtues and thus justified the exercise of a personal power.Artistic commissions situated leading families at the heart of their city’s history. They created a sense of continuity with the urban authorities upon which the new rulers still depended. Images were meant to display an hegemony that came to be more and more deeply grounded in dynastic succession and that was supported by the gathering of a select court. While the different sources of legitimacy of such patrimonialised power may have been contradictory, images managed to accommodate these contradictions. They made new styles of ruling suitable to the claims of customs and to the communities’ self-interests.

Le système fiscal local direct français a connu, au cours de ces dernières années, des bouleversements notoires. La taxe professionnelle, qui autrefois constituait la principale source de revenus des communes, après avoir été plusieurs fois l'objet de réformes ou de tentatives de réformes, a été finalement supprimée et remplacée (Loi de Finances pour 2010) par de nouvelles impositions (CET, IFER…). Quant à la taxe d'habitation, elle a, depuis 2000, quasiment perdu de sa pertinence et sa crédibilité comme mode d'imposition à l'échelle locale. Aujourd'hui, l'intérêt pour les collectivités locales, en général, et les communes, en particulier semble, sans doute, se porter sur le foncier bâti, qui n'est rien d'autre que la troisième taxe qui complète le tableau des principaux impôts directs locaux français. La taxe foncière sur les propriétés bâties, grâce aux nombreuses qualités (techniques, juridiques, urbanistiques, économico-spatiales) qu'elle présente en matière d'imposition locale, semble offrir plusieurs possibilités de développement aux communes. En effet, la taxe foncière sur les propriétés bâties rentre dans la catégorie des impôts dits « fonciers » qui sont considérés, par plusieurs auteurs (universitaires, élus locaux, élus nationaux, organisations internationales telles que l'OCDE), comme de bons impôts, voire comme des impôts optimaux. Aussi, la taxe foncière sur les propriétés bâties est un impôt qui peut bien prêter, surtout dans le long et le moyen terme, à des politiques de développement local, d'autant que ses bases, touchant à la fois les ménages et les entreprises, semblent être prêtes pour ces enjeux autour desquels se définissent aujourd'hui les stratégies (économiques et spatiales) de développement territorial : politique de logement (ZAC habitat), politique de développement économique (commerces, bureaux, services, activités industrielles ou entreposage, etc.), étalement urbain, densification urbaine / The French local tax system has been live, over the last few years, notable changes. Business tax, which once was the main source of income of Communes, after being repeatedly subjected to reforms or attempts at reform, was finally removed and replaced (Finance Act 2010) by new taxes (TEC, IFER…). As for the Local residence tax, it has since 2000, almost lost its relevance and credibility as a form of taxation at the local level. Today, interest in local government, in general, and the Communes, in particular, seems no doubt be focused on the Property tax on buildings, which is nothing other than the third tax which complete the picture of French major local direct tax. Property tax on buildings, thanks to the many qualities that it has in terms of local taxation (technical, legal, urban planning, economic and spatial), seems to offer more development opportunities to the Communes. Indeed, the property tax on buildings falls into the category of taxes known as “land taxes” that are considered by several authors (academics, local councillors, national politicians, international organizations such as OECD) as good taxes or optimal taxes. Also, Property tax on buildings is a tax that can pay well, especially as its bases, affecting both households and businesses, seem to be ready for these challenges around which define, today, the territorial development strategies (economic and spatial): housing policies, economic development policies (shops, offices, storage, etc.), urban sprawl, urban densification

This diploma thesis analyses the level of enthusiasm of the residents of Varnsdorf in recycling and the level of participation in waste management between 2006 - 2009. The level of enthusiasm is influenced by legal and economic incentives as well as programmes and strategies focused on supporting environmental awareness. The legislation of Czech Republic and the main educational programme - the State Programme of Environmental Education, Upbringing and Enlightenment in the Czech Republic was developed over three years and was implemented via my case study. The case study explored the change of the resident's habits in recycling. The reasons of their change is increased public awareness and compliance with new regulations. Finally there are a few recommendations to increase the level of participation of residents.

<p>Postdoctoral scholars encounter various challenges as they navigate the gap between graduate school and faculty or industry positions, one of which includes the challenge of work-family conflict and balance. The science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields represent one sector of the workforce where a closer examination of work-family conflict and balance is important due to the rise in prominence of these fields and the unique populations of people who are underrepresented within these fields. Scholars have identified various experiences or constructs (e.g., bias) that suggest that STEM environments may not be particularly welcoming or supportive for racially and ethnically underrepresented minorities (URMs). The transitional stage of being a postdoctoral scholar in combination with high work demands and a “chilly” or unsupportive work environment may contribute to work-family conflict among racially and ethnically URM postdoctoral scholars in STEM, which could contribute to the underrepresentation of racially and ethnically URMs in the STEM fields and/or the premature exit of these postdoctoral scholars from STEM fields. </p><p>Using role congruity perspective (Diekman & Eagly, 2008), I examined the function of goal endorsement (communal or agentic) as a possible cultural moderator in the indirect relationship between work demand and work-family conflict. This study formulated and empirically tested the relationships between work demand, perceived work environment, goal endorsement (communal or agentic), work-family conflict, and satisfaction with work-family balance. Two models were examined to differentiate two different aspects perceived work environment: (a) one using a supportive work environment variable as a mediator of the relationship between perceived work demand and work-family conflict, and (b) one using a hostile work environment variable as a mediator of the relationship between perceived work demand and work-family conflict. Hypotheses regarding the moderating role of a communal goal orientation and an agentic goal orientation in the indirect relationship between work demand and work-family conflict across the two models (supportive work environment and hostile work environment) were assessed. </p><p>Data was collected from 282 racially and ethnically underrepresented minority postdoctoral scholars in the STEM fields enrolled in postdoctoral positions at universities through an online survey. Using structural equation modeling, results revealed that the indirect effect between work demand and work-family conflict was significant and strongest at low levels of a communal goal endorsement and the indirect effect gradually became weaker until it was nonsignificant as racially and ethnically URM postdoctoral scholars’ communal goal endorsement increased. The results suggest that in the face of microaggressions in the workplace, racially and ethnically URM postdoctoral scholars’ high value of communion serves as a protective factor, which reduces the indirect effect of work demand on work-family conflict.Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research are presented alongside implications for counseling practice.</p>