The requirement for liquidated damages a convention, accessorial  to  the principal obligation, which guarantees the accomplishment of the first one. The penalty clause has received a different treatment in various legal systems; such are the French, Italian, German and Peruvian cases.In this article, the author explains the functions of the requirement for liquidated damages and its differences with similar figures. In addition he explains the relation between the requirement for liquidated damages and precontractual responsibility, as well as its role inthe scheme of contractual responsibility. / La cláusula penal es aquel negocio jurídico,accesorio a la obligación principal, por mediodel cual se garantiza el cumplimiento de dicha obligación. Este mecanismo de garantía delcumplimiento ha recibido un trato legislativodistinto en diversos ordenamientos, como elfrancés, italiano, alemán y peruano.En el presente artículo, el autor establece cuáles son las funciones de la cláusula penal y sus diferencias con figuras afines. Asimismo, explica la relación entre esta y la responsabilidad precontractual; así como su papel dentro del esquema de la responsabilidad contractual.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo propor uma estrutura conceitual para análise de como se dá a relação entre as normas contratuais formais e relacionais na composição da estrutura de governança das relações interorganizacionais. A pesquisa foi fundamentada nas teorias dos Contratos Relacionais, na literatura de contratos formais em relações interorganizacionais e na Teoria Economia dos Custos de Transação. É argumentado que em diferentes contextos transacionais a função e o conteúdo dos acordos formais, bem como o conteúdo dos acordos relacionais diferem. Sendo a presente pesquisa qualitativa-exploratória, foram analisadas seis relações interorganizacionais, quais sejam: as relações de três empresas incubadas em diferentes estágios de incubação; a relação de uma empresa com o conglomerado formal do qual a mesma participa; a relação de uma empresa calçadista e seus fornecedores, sendo todos participantes de um conglomerado informal de empresas; a relação de uma usina e seus fornecedores de cana-de-açúcar, uma vez que estas relações tendem a ser de longa duração. Para aplicação da Análise do Conteúdo foram seguidas as fases de pré-análise, exploração do material, e tratamento dos resultados e interpretações conforme Bardin (2011). A partir do protocolo de coleta de dados, as entrevistas transcritas foram exploradas a partir das categorias do protocolo. Considerando as proposições elaboradas observou-se que as características contextuais \'incerteza\', \'dificuldade de mensuração de performance\' e \'especificidade de ativos\' corroboram a presença de maior formalidade contratual na relação nos casos extremos de menor e maior intensidade dessas características. Diferentemente, a característica de expectativa de continuidade aparece de maneira homogênea em todas as relações analisadas, não sendo possível indicar tal variável como tendo a função diferenciadora na composição contratual. Na análise dos aspectos exploratórios observou-se que fatores como troca de conhecimento, aprendizagem e manutenção de padrão de qualidade do recurso transacionado, o ciclo de vida da organização, a atuação em mercados internacionais e a cultura destes mercados para a negociação, o setor de atuação da empresa e a existência de diversidade em formas de obtenção de insumos, alteram a percepção de presença e intensidade das variáveis que determinam o contexto no qual as relações são governadas alterando, por sua vez, a composição da estrutura de governança destas relações. Também foi verificado que o ciclo de vida, o tamanho da empresa e o tipo de insumo transacionado, foram indicados como aspectos que alteram o padrão da relação no espectro relacional, indicando que tais fatores poderiam também compor o modelo de análise de conteúdo contratual proposto neste trabalho. No que se refere ao conteúdo relacional, não foi possível verificar homogeneidade na composição das normas relacionais utilizadas, indicando que, possivelmente, a alteração do contexto da relação influencia a intensidade com que as normas relacionais são utilizadas, corroborando para a hipótese desta pesquisa. Na análise do conteúdo contratual formal, suas funções e nível complexidade, verificou-se que, na presença de maior intensidade de incerteza, dificuldade da mensuração da performance e especificidade de ativos, a complexidade dos contratos formais tende a ser influenciada por estas características contextuais. Em se tratando das funções contratuais formais, destaca-se que, apenas nos casos em que há especificidade de ativos de maneira mais intensa, houve corroboração da função contratual de salvaguardar. / This paper aims to propose a conceptual framework for analyzing how is the relationship between formal and relational contracts in the composition of the governance structure of inter-organizational relationships. The research was based on the theories of Relational Contracts, in the literature of formal agreements on inter-organizational relationships and Theory Economics of Transaction Costs. It is argued that in different transactional contexts the function and content of formal agreements, as well as the content of relational agreements differ. As this is a qualitative exploratory study, we analyzed six inter-organizational relationships using the Content Analysis applied on collected and transcribed interviews, namely: the relationship of three companies incubated at different stages of incubation; the relationship of a company with the formal conglomerate which it participates; the relationship of a footwear company and its suppliers, which all share an informal group of companies; the ratio of a plant and its sugarcane suppliers, since these links tend to be long lasting. From elaborated propositions, it was revealed that the contextual characteristics \'uncertainty\', \'difficulty in measuring performance\' and \'asset specificity\' support the presence of more contractual formality in relation to extreme cases of lower and higher intensity of these characteristics. Unlikely, the continuity of expectation feature appears evenly in all analyzed relationships, not being possible to indicate such a variable as having a distinctive role in the contractual composition. In the analysis of exploratory aspects, it was observed that factors such as exchange of knowledge, learning and standard of maintenance quality transacted resource, the organization\'s life cycle, the performance in international markets and culture of these markets for trading, the sector the company operates, and the existence of diversity in ways of obtaining inputs, change the perception of presence and intensity of the variables that determine the context in which the relationships are governed changing, in turn, the composition of the governance structure of these relationships. It was also found that the life cycle, company size and type of traded inputs (i.e. presence / absence of technology and innovation in the contracted feature), were indicated as aspects that alter the pattern of the relationship in the relational spectrum, indicating that such factors could also compose the contractual content analysis model proposed in this paper. With regard to the relational content, it was not possible to verify the homogeneity in the composition of the relational rules used, indicating that, possibly, different contexts influence the intensity with which the relational rules are used, supporting the hypothesis for this study. In the analysis of the formal contract content, its functions and complexity level, it was found that in the presence of higher intensity of uncertainty, difficulty of measuring the performance and asset specificity, the complexity of the formal contract tends to be influenced by these contextual characteristics. In the case of formal contractual functions (i.e. safeguard, coordinate, adapt), it is emphasized that only in cases where there is intense asset specificity, there was corroboration of the contractual function of safeguarding.

Thesis title: Contractual liability and its limitation The aim of the thesis is to assess the options of parties to a contract when settling liability rules diversify from the standards of Czech Civil Code (Act. 89/2012 Coll). The author provides introduction of multiple ways of how the parties can limit their contractual liability and emphasize that the aim of any liability is to motivate subjects to pay attention to the opposite party's rights and assets, but in the context of Civil Code its main function is to repair damages and satisfy the injured party. The subject which is in breach of its duties therefore gets new or alternated duties, as well as the injured party gains more rights on its side. For the scope of liability, it is important to define the content of the contract as the parties see it in the moment of the contract's conclusion. The content does not consist only of rights and duties connected to the fulfilment of the contract object matter, but it also consists of duties to respect other interests of the opposite party, so the status quo in respect to matters not connected with the fulfilment of the obligations remain untouched. Such a protective aim arises out of strengthened confidence of the relation between contractual parties and can be mainly seen as a duty of prevention and...

El interés que me motiva a realizar la presente investigación es tratar de determinar si se está haciendo una adecuada interpretación del Art. 161 de Código Civil en cuanto a la responsabilidad de los actos realizados por el <<falso representante>> Puesto que, en la realidad peruana se ven una serie de casos en los cuales gente con escasos recursos que quiere concretizar el sueño de la casa propia o que son despojadas de su propiedad, se ven envueltas en una serie de engaños por inescrupulosas personas que <<dicen tener la representación que no ostentan>> y cuyo único cometido es enriquecerse a costa de otros. / Tesis

Le financement de projet est toujours présenté comme une technique financière permettant de réaliser des ouvrages de grande envergure. Il en résulte qu'il est une solution appropriée pour les projets qui demandent des fonds considérables pour sa réalisation et qui peuvent être externalisés sans que le poids de l’endettement pèse sur le bilan du promoteur du projet. Il peut être défini comme l’opération qui se caractérise par la mise à disposition d’une entité intermédiaire, dite entité de projet ad hoc, des fonds nécessaires pour la réalisation d’un projet spécifique où les bailleurs de fonds acceptent de limiter, en tout ou en partie, leurs recours au titre du remboursement de leurs prêts, sur les revenus engendrés par l’exploitation du projet ainsi que sur les autres actifs de celui-ci. Ce type de financement révèle l’existence d’un ensemble contractuel adéquat permettant, en même temps, de maîtriser les risques du projet et impliquant un régime qui lui est propre. / Project Finance is always presented as a financial technique which allows to carry out works of great scale. It is a suitable solution for projects which require considerable funds in order to be accomplished and which can be outsourced avoiding the weight of the debt weighing on the balance sheet of the sponsor of the project. It can be defined as an operation in which there is a provision of the required funds for the realization of a specific project by an intermediate entity, known as the “ad hoc project entity”. In such operation the lenders agree to limit, totally or partly, the reimbursement of their loans to the incomes generated by the exploitationof the project as well as to the other assets of such project. This kind offinancing reveals the existence of an adequate “contractual unit” which allows, at the same time, to control the risks of the project and which implies its own legal regime.

La présente étude se propose de théoriser la pratique de l’entrée payante dans le contrat. Elle peut être envisagée comme l’obligation monétaire préalable et déterminante imposée à l’une des parties, conditionnant la conclusion d’un contrat. La réunion sous ce seul vocable d’un certain nombre d’obligations précontractuelles permet de dégager une vision unitaire de la question, avant de s’attacher à leurs particularités. L’entrée payante connaît, de fait, diverses manifestations et ses justifications le sont tout autant. « Engagement » ou « supplément », la validité de ces obligations interroge nécessairement au regard du principe de la liberté contractuelle. Si l’on ne peut nier l’existence d’instruments juridiques susceptibles d’en assurer le contrôle, ce dernier demeure néanmoins non efficient. Dès lors, doit être sérieusement envisagée la création d’une norme générale encadrant ces pratiques. / This study intends to theorize the application of admission charge into contracts. It can be regarded as a preliminary and decisive monetary obligation imposed upon one of the parties, determining the finalization of the contract. The union of several pre-contractual duties under this sole term allows to put forward a unified vision of the question before going into particularities. De facto, admission charge is subject to various manifestations and so are its justifications. «Engagement» or «supplementary» pre-contractual monetary obligation issues continue to arise regarding the validity of these obligations in accordance with the principle of freedom of contract. While there can be no denying the existence of legal instruments likely to ensure its regulation, it remains inefficient nonetheless. Henceforth, creating a general standard to regulate such practices ought to be seriously considered.

Eléments essentiels du contrat, les clauses contractuelles méritent d’être étudiées afin de faciliter leur utilisation par les praticiens et leur appréhension par le juge.Délaissant toute visée exhaustive, ce travail n’a pas pour objet de répertorier ni de dénombrer matière par matière, à la manière d’un catalogue, les innombrables clauses foisonnant dans l’ensemble des branches du droit privé. Un tel projet ne livrerait que des enseignements parcellaires et descriptifs. Une réflexion générale sur les clauses prises comme instrument juridique ne présuppose pas de se livrer à un examen systématique de l’ensemble de leurs applications particulières, mais au contraire de mettre l’accent sur certains de leurs effets,jugés les plus remarquables.Une typologie des principales clauses devait tout d’abord être établie grâce à une approche fonctionnelle de leurs manifestations contractuelles. En effet, la volonté des parties d’organiser leur contrat tend généralement vers quatre grandes finalités : aménager l’exécution du contrat, gérer les risques encourus, éviter l’appréciation judiciaire et prévoir la fin du contrat et ses éventuelles sanctions. L’établissement d’une classification basée sur leur fonction permettait en outre de ne pas délaisser ni les clauses naissant au gré des besoins économiques ni les clauses considérées comme autonomes. Ce projet conduisait nécessairement à rechercher les modalités d’exécution des clauses d’une même catégorie permettant ainsi de proposer un régime juridique propre à chacune de ces catégories.Prolongeant l’analyse de leur fonction, il convenait alors dans une seconde partie d’étudier les liens existants entre les clauses et le contrat. Les clauses sont au service du contrat dont elles aménagent les obligations, prolongent les effets et précisent les sanctions.Or, parallèlement aux deux niveaux de dispositions que représentent la théorie générale du contrat et le droit des contrats spéciaux, il devait être démontré qu’une théorie générale des clauses contractuelles ne saurait constituer un troisième niveau de règles applicables au contrat. Néanmoins, une vision générale de l’influence de leurs effets, sur et en dehors du contrat, a permis d’établir des conditions de validité et des règles communes applicables à toutes les clauses. / Contractual clauses are key elements of a contract and should be studied more closely in order to facilitate their use by practioners and to enhance understanding by the judge.This work does not claim to be exhaustive. Its purpose is not to to identify, enumerate or catalogue the numerous clauses that abound in all branches of private law. Such a project would only yield a fragmented, descriptive insight. A general reflection on clauses as legal instruments does not necessitate a detailed examination of all applications but only that their most notable effects be highlighted.Firstly, a typology of the most important clauses had to be drawn up based on a functional approach regarding their contractual applications. The parties to a contract generally have in view four main goals: organising the execution of the contract, managing the risks, avoiding legal pitfalls, and foreseeing the end of the contract and any potential sanctions. The establishment of a classification based on function ensured that clauses arising from economic necessity as well as clauses considered to be independent would not beneglected. Hence, this project comprises research on the details of implementation of clauses in the same category, leading to the setting out of a legal regime appropriate to each category. Secondly, the aim of analysing the clauses’ functions led to studying the links between clauses and contracts. Clauses basically serve to organise the terms of the contract, extend its effects and establish sanctions. However, in parallel to the two levels – the general theory of contracts and special contracts law – it had to be demonstrated that a general theory of contractual clauses did not constitute a third level of rules applicable to contracts. Nevertheless, an overall view of the influence of their effects, both in terms of and beyond the contract, has allowed for the establishment of a general regime presenting the conditions of validity and common rules applicable to all clauses.

The times when closing of the contract was as simple as making an offer and receiving its acceptance are long over now. A variuosly long period preceeds an establishment of a contractual relationship. During such period, when a contract is being formed, the parties exchange their requests or essential information and negotiate the content of the contract. The longer this pre-contractual negotiation lasts, the more time, money or other means parties invest in good faith that they shall be compensated once the contract is concluded. In case the closing of the contract is not going to occur, because of a party's unfair dealings, the party in harm shall be entitled to engage liability of the other contractor. In these circumstances, the party in harm shall base its claim on a pre-contractual liability, also referred to as culpa in contrahendo. Apart from determining the pre-contractual obligations and liability for their breach in general fashion, the subject matter of this thesis is mainly an effective comparison of Czech and French relevant legal regulation. Since the legislation does not currently regulate the issue of pre-contractual liability, this thesis is focused primarily on the case law issued by courts from both states. In particular, the thesis analyzes the case law of the Czech Supreme...

Contractual penalty is an effective and in practice often used type of security. However, we cannot consider the Czech legal regulation of the contractual penalty as ideal and there have been many difficulties connected with the application of this instrument. The thesis aims at clarification of the functions of contractual penalty, conditions for its valid and effective creation and consequences of the excessive sum of contractual penalty. Furthermore, the thesis focuses on the relation between contractual penalty and other legal instruments and finally also on comparison with other types of security. Main legal sources of the final thesis are court decisions, especially judgments of the Supreme Court of the Czech Republic. In the thesis there are used methods of historical and comparative interpretation.

La crise économique et sociale que nous connaissons actuellement met en lumière la nécessité d’une action publique volontariste et, s’agissant des collectivités territoriales qui sont les principaux acteurs de l’investissement public, l’exigence d’une politique résolument tournée vers l’investissement de long terme, comme moteur de l’économie et de la reprise. Focalisé sur la notion de PPP, d’un part dans son acceptation la plus large, l’expression « partenariat public-privé » ou encore « PPP », désigne une formule générique englobant toutes formes de coopération entre la sphère publique et privée. D’autre part, utilisée dans un sens plus strict que celui de notion générique englobant toutes formes de coopération entre le public et le privé, la notion de PPP renvoie à une technique contractuelle ayant pour objet de confier au secteur prive la conception, le financement, la construction et l’exploitation d’un bien ou d’un ouvrage d’intérêt collectif. / The economic and social crisis we are currently experiencing highlights the need for a proactive public policy and, in the case of local authorities who are the main actors of public investment, the requirement of a policy resolutely turned towards the ' long-term investment as a motor engine of the economy and the recovery. Focused on the concept of PPP, a share in its broadest sense, the term «public -private partnership» or «PPP» refers to a generic formula encompassing all forms of cooperation between public and private sphere. On the other hand , used a more stringent than generic term encompassing all forms of cooperation between the public and private sense, the term refers to a contractual PPP technique for entrust the private sector to design, finance, construct and operate of a well or a work of collective interest.