Pas de résumé<p> / Doctorat en droit / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La norme pénale valide est celle qui possède la capacité de déployer ses effets. Elle est celle qui autorise le déclenchement des poursuites, le prononcé des condamnations et l'exécution de peines. En premier lieu, il a fallu montrer ce qui paraît s’imposer d’instinct : loin de se résumer au respect d'exigences formelles, la validité de la norme pénale dépend directement de la conformité à des exigences substantielles, portées par la Constitution et les conventions européennes. La preuve de la part substantielle de validité est apportée en deux temps. D’abord, l’entrée en vigueur de la règle pénale est subordonnée à sa bonne insertion dans la hiérarchie des normes. Ensuite, les normes répressives irrégulières sont systématiquement invalidées.En second lieu, la composante substantielle de la validité de la norme pénale a de multiples conséquences, qui sont tantôt bénéfiques, tantôt problématiques. En effet, les principes qui conditionnent substantiellement la validité de la norme pénale assoient la légitimité de la répression. En revanche, l’avènement du pouvoir prétorien, dans une discipline en quête de stabilité, soulève de nombreuses difficultés. Pour les surmonter, proposer des clefs de résolution s’est révélé nécessaire. / The valid criminal norm is the one that is able to have a legal impact. It allows for the commencement of a prosecution, the imposition of a sanction, and the enforcement of sentences. Firstly, we had to demonstrate what seems manifest: far from being only a matter of respecting the formal requirements, the validity of a criminal norm depends directly on its compliance to substantial requirements that are contained in the French Constitution and the European conventions. The substantial proportion of the validity is demonstrated in two steps. The entry into force of the criminal rule is at first subordinated to its correct integration in the hierarchy of norms. Then, the improper repressive norms are systematically invalidated. Secondly, the substantial part of the validity of the criminal norm has several consequences that are in some cases beneficial but not in others. Indeed, the principles that substantially determine the validity of the criminal norm make the punishment legitimate. However, the emergence of the judge-made law raises many difficulties in a discipline that yearns for stability. In order to overcome them, it appeared necessary to suggest some key elements of resolution.

[pt] A presente pesquisa visa à fundamentação teórica do reconhecimento dos povos indígenas como verdadeiros sujeitos do Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos, através do resgate do pensamento jurídico e teológico dos autores da Escola Ibérica da Paz, cujos escritos, datados dos séculos XVI e XVII, colocaram em causa os fundamentos éticos, jurídicos e políticos do processo de conquista e colonização do Novo Mundo. Trata-se de um momento histórico particularmente privilegiado para esta análise, em primeiro lugar, pelo ineditismo do contato civilizacional proporcionado pela chegada das naus espanholas e portuguesas na América, sob os auspícios das Coroas ibéricas e do Papa, impulsionando os autores do Renascimento peninsular a adequar toda a tradição filosófica mediterrânea cristã a uma nova realidade, resultando na reinvenção do direito natural e das gentes no quadro de uma realidade cultural bastante distinta daquela do orbis christianus medieval. Em segundo lugar, este contexto histórico e geográfico permite uma análise do Direito Internacional, ainda como jus gentium, ou seja, antes do modelo westfaliano de repartição das soberanias estatais pós 1648. Para a compreensão do problema de pesquisa proposto em toda sua amplitude, o trabalho divide-se em três partes principais. A primeira dedica-se ao estudo do fenômeno da coletivização da proteção internacional dos direitos humanos, analisando de início as fontes de inspiração utilizadas para a redação da Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos e o processo decisório que gerou a divisão dos Pactos Internacionais das Nações Unidas em dois instrumentos com a previsão de direitos civis e políticos separadamente dos direitos econômicos, sociais e culturais e com mecanismos de implementação distintos, o que resultou na proteção dos direitos humanos individuais mais amplamente desenvolvida que aquela em dimensão coletiva. Demonstra-se, ao final, que, apesar de resistências teóricas, as coletividades humanas possuem, contemporaneamente, um lócus standi nos sistemas de peticionamento internacional em casos de graves e sistemáticas violações de direitos humanos. A segunda parte destaca a trajetória dos povos indígenas de objetos a sujeitos do direito internacional, assim como examina o processo emancipatório dos povos indígenas no Novo Constitucionalismo Latino-Americano. Esta parte intermediária do trabalho demonstra ainda o reconhecimento da condição de sujeitos coletivos dos povos indígenas por meio do estudo da casuística indigenista da Corte Interamericana de Direitos Humanos, sobretudo após o caso paradigmático do povo Kichwa de Sarayaku v. Equador (2012). Entretanto, por este trabalho não objetivar uma análise apenas hermenêutica e normativista do Direito Internacional dos Povos Indígenas, a terceira parte revela o papel da Escola Ibérica da Paz, nos séculos XVI e XVII, na defesa dos direitos dos povos indígenas do Novo Mundo. Graças à perspectiva do direito natural e das gentes, os povos indígenas eram considerados pelos autores ibéricos como comunidades humanas livres e soberanas que, como qualquer outro reino cristão, tinham o direito de se autogovernar e dispor de suas terras. / [en] The aim of this thesis is to research the theoretical basis for the recognition of indigenous peoples as true subjects of the international law for human rights, by means of recovering the legal and theological thought of the authors of the Iberian School of Peace. Their written work which dates of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries discuss the ethical, legal and political basis for the process of conquer and colonization of the New World. Their debates occurred in a privileged moment for the analysis, firstly because of the unprecedented contact of civilizations created by the arrival of the Spanish and Portuguese caravels in America, under patronage of the Iberian kings and the Pope. This contact stimulated the authors of the Renascence in the Iberian Peninsula to adapt the Christian Mediterranean philosophy tradition to a new reality which resulted on reinvention of the natural law and the law of nations under the frame of a cultural reality very different from that of the medieval orbis christianus. Secondly, the historic and geographic context of the Iberian School of Peace allows an analysis of the International Law still as jus gentium, i.e. before the Westphalian model of state sovereignty established in 1648. For complete understanding the research problem, the thesis is divided in three parts. The first part is dedicated to the study of phenomenon of the collectivization of the international law of the human rights. It analyses the sources that provide inspiration for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the decision process that divided the International Pacts of the United Nations in two instruments, one for civil and political rights and other for economic, social and cultural rights. The fact that the two instruments have distinct implementation mechanisms resulted on the protection of individual human rights being more widely developed than the protection of the collective dimension of human rights. It is demonstrated that besides the resistance in the tradition of human rights theory, human collectivities currently have locus standi in the international petitioning systems for the systematic violation of human rights. The second part emphasizes the trajectory of indigenous peoples from objects to subjects of international law, and examines their emancipatory process under the New Latin American Constitutionalism. This intermediate part of the work demonstrates the recognition of the condition of collective subjects for the indigenous peoples by means of the study of indigenous case law brought to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, especially after the paradigmatic case of the people Kichwa de Sarayaku v. Ecuador (2012). As this thesis does not aim to analyze the international law of the indigenous peoples resorting only to legal hermeneutics and normative studies, the third part reveals the role of the Iberian School of Pace of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to the protection of indigenous peoples rights in the new world. Due to the perspective of the natural law and the law of nations, the indigenous peoples were considered by the Iberian authors as free and sovereign human communities that, as any other Christian kingdom, had the right of self-government and control of their lands.

Le témoignage oral, depuis toujours, occupe, en tant qu'élément de preuve, une place au sein de la procédure pénale française. Pourtant, il n'a cessé de faire l'objet de critiques, ravivées par l'émergence de la preuve scientifique dans le procès pénal contemporain, car considéré comme faillible en raison de sa nature humaine. Cette affirmation repose, notamment, sur un postulat anachronique consistant à considérer le témoignage oral comme unitaire, au travers du seul prisme de sa source, l'homme, cantonné au seul témoin, tel que défini par les règles de procédure, alors qu'il présente en réalité un caractère dual. Or, c'est de cette méconnaissance, conduisant à une appréhension attentatoire à la valeur probatoire du témoignage oral, qu'émergent les objections à son encontre et qui soulèvent la question de sa nécessité dans le procès pénal, quand cette dernière ne devrait souffrir aucune hésitation, non seulement parce que le témoignage oral s'avère un élément de preuve utile à la recherche et à l'établissement de la vérité judiciaire mais également parce qu'il illustre et renforce les principes directeurs du procès pénal, tels qu'édictés par le législateur français et la Convention européenne des Droits de l'Homme. / Oral testimony has always been taken up as an element of evidence in the French criminal proceedings. However considered as unreliable because human, it hasn't ceased to be the subject of critics, lately revived with the emergence of scientific proof within contemporary penal trial. This statement is based on the anachronistic postulate that oral testimony, considered through the only view of the witness as defined by the procedural rules, is unity, whereas indeed it does present a dual character. The probationary value of oral testimony is suffering from this lack or recognition and its necessity within criminal procedure is also being questioned when there should be no hesitation whatsoever with regard to its use. In fact, oral testimony is not just a useful element of proof when trying to establish the truth, it does also illustrate and strengthen the governing principles of penal trial such as promulgated by the French legislator and the European convention of Human Rights.

Les conventions internationales de protection des droits de l’Homme ont été élaborées au début de la seconde moitié du XXe siècle. Or, le champ matériel de ces traités est étroitement connecté aux réalités humaines, elles-mêmes en constante évolution, et les développements technologiques, sociaux, économiques ou scientifiques peuvent avoir des implications directes sur l’exercice des droits et libertés fondamentaux. L’interprétation évolutive des ces instruments, consistant à les envisager « à la lumière des conditions actuelles », est alors devenue courante dans la pratique des juridictions spécialisées, bien qu’elle soit parfois envisagée avec méfiance. Absente des règles d’interprétation du droit international formulées dans la Convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités, cette modalité interprétative intrigue dans la mesure où elle conduit le juge à s’écarter parfois explicitement du texte de l’accord et donc de la volonté des parties. L’interprétation évolutive invite par conséquent à une réévaluation de la fonction interprétative du juge international, entre son encadrement théorique traditionnellement strict et les exigences empiriques du droit international contemporain / Human rights treaties have been adopted at the end of the first half of the XXth century, in a technological, social and economic context which has since then deeply evolved. To maintain the effectiveness and relevance of those treaties, specialised jurisdictions have therefore increasingly interpreted their provisions in light of current living conditions. This method, called evolutive interpretation of treaties, is still looked at with suspicion. Indeed, it is not recognised by the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties and it may lead the judge to depart from the parties intention as expressed in the text of the convention. The evolutive interpretation of treaties invites therefore to reconsider the international judge’s interpretative function, between its strict theoretical conception and the empirical needs of contemporary international law

The thesis is focused on the examination of the scope of Article 14 of the European Convention of Human Rights, theoretical framework, and legal basis of the concept of discrimination. The paper presents an analysis of the caselaw of the European Court on Human Rights, how the latter operationalises the issue of inequality, and which inaccuracies of interpretation it leaves. The primary aim is to challenge the system of protection against discrimination under the Article 14 as well as the role of the national actors in its development. The thesis examines the level of compliance among signatories of the Convention with its anti- discriminatory provisions and focuses on the individual capacities of the states to satisfy judgements of the European Court on Human Rights. The usage of the comparative approach also helps to analyse the role of local non-governmental organisations in the process of compliance with human rights obligations under the Convention among signatories. The thesis aims to show why the level of protection against discrimination differs from the one country to another and which obstacles they face on the path towards the respect for human rights.

In this thesis, the legal theory of Robert Cover is employed to analyse the procedural turn of the ECtHR. The text studies how Animal Defenders International v. the United Kingdom (ADI) and subsequent case law relate to the margin of appreciation doctrine and how this can be understood from a Coverian point of view. The margin of appreciation is thus seen as a product of an interplay between paideic and imperial forces where the imperial, or world-maintaining, influences on the doctrine are the strongest. ADI and later cases are read as further accentuating the focus on the nomos of the state relative to competing nomoi already at work in the case law of the procedural turn. The thesis is closed with an amalgamation of Cover’s ideas with the democratic theory of Jacques Derrida which results in a discussion on what a Coverian re-evaluation of the approach outlined in ADI could look like.

En el presente trabajo de investigación se realiza un análisis de la evolución jurisprudencial de la distribución gratuita de la píldora del día siguiente y sus consecuencias en los derechos reproductivos y sexuales de la mujer en el Perú. El desarrollo se hace en el marco de los derechos fundamentales, principalmente en el ejercicio del derecho a la autonomía reproductiva de las mujeres, contenido en el más genérico derecho al libre desarrollo de la personalidad. Además, se analizan y discuten sentencias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, sentencias del Tribunal Constitucional peruano y sentencias del Poder Judicial d el Perú. El análisis se realiza en cuatro capítulos. En el primero, se examina los derechos reproductivos y sexuales de la mujer; en el segundo, se estudia los procesos constitucionales que han permitido discutir y dilucidar la evolución jurisprudencial de la píldora del día siguiente; en el tercero, se describe la problemática del acceso y distribución de la píldora del día siguiente en los últimos 20 años, como consecuencia de las decisiones emanadas por el Tribunal Constitucional, Poder Judicial y, por la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Finalmente, en el cuarto capítulo se abordan los resultados y conclusiones respecto al tema analizado. / This research work will be analyzed the jurisprudence evolution of the free distribution of the morning-after pill and the consequences on the reproduction and sexual rights of women in Peru. Development will be carried out within the framework of fundamental rights, mainly in the exercise of the right to reproductive autonomy of women, contained in the most generic right to free development of the personalit y. In addition, judgments of the Inter- American Court of Human Rights, judgments of the Peruvian Constitutional Court and judgments of the Judicial Power of Peru will be analyzed and discussed. The analysis will be carried out in four chapters. In the first, the reproductive and sexual rights of women are examined; in the second, the constitutional processes that have allowed discussing and elucidating the jurisprudential evolution of the morning-after pill are studied; the third describes the problem of access to and distribution of the morning after pill in the last 20 years, as a consequence of the decisions issued by the Constitutional Court, the Judiciary and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. Finally, the fourth chapter addresses the results and conclusions regarding the subject analyzed. / Tesis

Le droit international, notamment le droit international des droits de l’homme, a établi des obligations étatiques pour affronter les défis des sociétés en transition : la recherche de la vérité autour des crimes du passé, la poursuite et la sanction pénale aux auteurs de ces crimes, et la réparation aux victimes. Les limitations politiques, sociales et juridiques de la justice transitionnelle sont énormes et elles représentent de grands défis pour les États et pour la communauté internationale en général. Cette recherche a pour but l’analyse du processus de la justice transitionnelle au Pérou après le conflit armé interne et le régime autoritaire de l’ex-présidente Alberto Fujimori à la lumière du droit international. L’étude conclut que le Pérou a accompli les obligations imposées par le droit international en utilisant une approche intégrale de la justice de transition. Néanmoins, il reste encore quelques défis à surmonter liés aux facteurs politiques et sociaux de la réalité péruvienne. / The international human rights law has established obligations on States concerning how they must deal with the challenges inherent to transitioning societies: searching for the truth related to past crimes, persecuting and sanctioning those responsible of these crimes, and providing redress to the victims. Transitional justice has many political, social, and legal limitations that pose a challenge for States as well as for the international community at large. The objective of this research is to analyze – according to international law's parameters – the transitional justice's process that took place in Peru after the internal armed conflict and Alberto Fujimori's authoritarian regime. This study concludes that Peru has implemented international law's obligations while applying an integral approach to transitional justice. Nevertheless, there are still challenges linked to Peruvian society's political and social dimensions.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, European states have taken numerous measures to prevent the spread of the coronavirus. Several states have introduced various forms of compulsory vaccination against COVID-19. While vaccines are one of the most effective tools for protecting people against COVID-19, it raises the question to which extent states may justifiably make vaccination schemes compulsory in the pursuit of public health. This paper, therefore, analyses the compatibility between compulsory vaccination and the right to respect for private life as set out in Article 8 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (the ECHR). As of today, the European Court of Human Rights (the ECtHR) has not decided whether vaccine mandates are compatible with the right to respect for private life.  An interference in the right to respect for private life must be in accordance with the law and fulfil one of the legitimate aims that are set out in Article 8.2 of the ECHR. An interference also needs to be necessary in a democratic society in order to achieve that legitimate aim. The protection of health as well as the protection of the rights and freedoms of others are two of the legitimate aims stipulated in Article 8 of the ECHR that are relevant in relation to the introduction of compulsory vaccination in society. In assessing whether an interference is necessary in a democratic society, the states enjoy a certain margin of appreciation. However, their assessment remains subject to review by the ECtHR. The principle of proportionality is an important part in assessing whether the interference has been necessary in a democratic society or not. The interference in question must remain proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued. In this paper, the compatibility between compulsory COVID-19 vaccination and the right to respect for private life is examined primarily by analysing prior case law of the ECtHR concerning vaccination and other medical interventions. This paper concludes that the states enjoy a wide margin of appreciation when assessing the necessity of introducing compulsory COVID-19 vaccinations, mainly because of the lack of European consensus regarding such vaccination schemes. Furthermore, it is concluded that compulsory COVID-19 vaccinations can be compatible with the right to respect for private life as set out in Article 8 of the ECHR, provided that the vaccines are considered safe and efficient by the research community, the vaccines used are monitored and the vaccine mandate is only indirectly imposed by sanctions of a protective nature. In addition, necessary precautions must be taken by prior assessment of potential contraindications and there must exist a possibility to receive compensation as a result of potential injuries caused by the vaccine.