Syftet med studien är att få ökad kunskap om olika yrkesetiska dilemman som pedagoger i förskolan kan uppleva vid orosanmälningar. Studien syfte är att undersöka om skillnader kan ses gällande orosanmälningar i två områden med skilda socioekonomisk status.

Bakgrund: Moralisk stress är ett begrepp som först myntades av Andrew Jameton. Hans definition av moralisk stress är när en person vet den korrekta moraliska handlingen i en viss situation, men inte kan agera utefter denna på grund av olika organisatoriska begränsningar. Den moraliska stressen kan leda både till fysiska och psykiska symtom hos sjuksköterskan, men även patienten påverkas negativt om sjuksköterskan upplever moralisk stress. För att hantera den moraliska stressen kan sjuksköterskan använda sig av olika copingstrategier, en copingstrategi syftar till hantera inre och/eller yttre påfrestningar. Syfte: Syftet är att undersöka sjuksköterskors erfarenheter av copingstrategier vid moralisk stress på sin arbetsplats. Metod: En litteraturstudie med kvalitativ design utfördes. Totalt 12 stycken vetenskapliga artiklar användes för att få fram resultatet. Artiklarna granskades utefter relevans och kvalitet av två stycken oberoende granskare. Resultat: Fem kategorier som svarade på syftet identifierades, vilka var; (1) distansering (2) förnekelse (3) acceptans (4) lämna arbetet och (5) samtal Konklusion: Distansering är en återkommande copingstrategi sjuksköterskor använder sig utav. Genom att distansera sig från det moraliska dilemmat skyddar sjuksköterskan sig själv, men i längden har denna copingstrategi negativa konsekvenser för sjuksköterskans självbild och hälsa. Att samtala med sina kollegor och chefer om de situationer som ger upphov till moralisk stress har visat sig vara en god copingstrategi, dock är det viktigt att sjuksköterskan upplever sig bli hörd och att oron som sjuksköterskan uttrycker tas på allvar för att samtal ska fungera som en effektiv copingstrategi. / Background: Moral distress is a concept first coined by Andrew Jameton. His definition of moral distress is when a person knows the correct moral action in a particular situation, but cannot act on it because of various organizational constraints. The moral distress can lead to both physical and mental symptoms for the nurse, the patient is also adversely affected if the nurse is experiencing moral stress. In order to deal with the moral stress, the nurse can use different coping strategies, which aims to deal with internal and / or external stresses. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate nurses' experiences of coping strategies in moral distress at their workplace. Method: A literature review with qualitative design was performed. A total of 12 scientific articles were used to obtain the result. The articles relevance and quality were reviewed by two independent reviewers. Result: Five categories that responded to the purpose were identified, which were; (1) distancing (2) denial (3) acceptance (4) leaving work and (5) conversation. Conclusion: Distancing is a recurring coping strategy nurse’s use. By distancing themself from the moral dilemma, the nurse protects herself from moral distress, but in the long run, this coping strategy has negative consequences for the nurse's self-image and health. Talking with their colleagues and managers about the situations that give rise to moral distress has proven to be a good coping strategy, however, it is important that the nurse feel that she is being heard and that the concerns the nurse’s expresses are being taken seriously if the conversation are going to be an effective coping strategy.

In evolutionary theory the existence of self-sacrificing cooperative traits poses a problem that has engendered decades of debate. The principal theories of the evolution of altruism are inclusive fitness, reciprocal altruism, and multilevel selection. To provide a framework for the unification o f these apparently disparate theories, this dissertation identifies two fundamental conditions required for the evolution of altruism: 1) non-zero-sum fitness benefits for cooperation and 2) positive assortment among altruistic behaviors. I demonstrate the underlying similarities in these three theories in the following two ways. First, I show that the game-theoretic model of the prisoner’s dilemm a (PD) is inherent to all three theories. While the PD has been used extensively to model reciprocal altruism, I demonstrate that the n-player PD captures fundamental aspects o f multilevel selection and inclusive fitness in that NPD model parameters relate simply to Simpson’s paradox, the Price covariance equation, and Hamilton’s rule. The tension between hierarchical levels that defines a PD reflects the tension between Abstract levels o f selection that is explicit in multilevel selection theory, and im plicit in the other two theories. Second, Ham ilton’s rule from inclusive fitness theory applies to the other theories. As mentioned, I demonstrate that this rule relates to multilevel selection via the NPD. I also show that Queller’s generalization of Hamilton’s rule applies to the conditional strategies of reciprocal altmism. This challenges the selfish-gene viewpoint by highlighting the fact that it is the phenotypes o f others, not their genotypes, that is critical to the evolution o f altruism. I integrate the PD and H am ilton’s rule as follows: the evolution o f altruism in general involves PD situations in which Hamilton’s rule specifies the necessary relationship between 1) the degree of non-zero-sumness within the PD and 2) the degree of positive assortment among altruistic behaviors. Additional contributions of this research include a demonstration that randomly formed associations can provide the necessary positive assortment for strong altruism to evolve, the development of a new selection decomposition that is symmetrical to the Price equation, and a game-theoretic analysis showing the essential similarity of weak and strong altruism under selection.

Morality has been a subject of study for centuries, though there is still much that is not understood about the factors that dictate moral decision making and moral identity. This study examines the relationship between the Big Five Personality traits (agreeableness, openness, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and extraversion) as well as empathy and moral decision making. However, we use a slightly different methodology than previous studies on morality and personality by incorporating more relevant moral dilemmas related to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in addition to the purely hypothetical dilemmas used in previous research (referred to as standard dilemmas). Additionally, rather than considering only the response to the dilemma as variable, this study also explored the relationship between these personality traits and the guilt felt by the decision made as well as how difficult participants felt it was for them to make the decision. The results suggest that there is a relationship between certain aspects of personality and the guilt felt by moral decisions as well as how difficult one finds making a decision. Additionally, the results imply that the relevance of the dilemma does significantly impact moral dilemma decisions and the feeling associated with such decisions.

According to game theory, dominant strategy of Prisoner’s Dilemma game is defecting. Since online trading between two strangers falls in the realm of a Prisoner’s Dilemma, failure should be the only logical conclusion of such electronic commerce situation. Traders are less likely to cooperate since they are not required to deal with the same buyer again given the enormous population of online traders. Thus one could argue that markets like eBay should never exist. Then what is the reason behind resounding success of such electronic markets? The answer lies in the reputation system that they established. Google page rankings and reader reviews on various sites like Amazon.com and Epinions.com are some other examples of the reputation system pointing towards the enormous influence that they wield in our everyday life. This research thus attempts to analyze importance of reputation system in an online trading using Agent Based Simulation. The effect of reputation system on the sustainability of mutual cooperation between online traders is analyzed by taking into account key factors like level of gullibility of online traders and the weight of influence given to their past behavior. Results indicate that reputation system is certainly capable of sustaining cooperation among online traders. However, weightage given to the past behavior of agents should be decided only after taking into account the level of gullibility of agents. Use of agent based modeling for studying dynamics of online trading is a relatively new concept. Sustaining cooperation among online traders is often perceived to be difficult task. The reputation system proposed in this research is expected to make contribution towards this goal.

Based on prior research, people tend to be more prone to save women before saving men, and this thesis presents two studies examining the social acceptance of having these different preferences. Participants (N=805) were randomly assigned to one of two studies, and within each study they were assigned to one of two conditions (allocation condition or choice condition). The participants first read a description of two medical helping project in which one project can treat only men while the other one can treat only women. Participants then read and rated six targets’ answers (three male targets and three female targets), based on their first impression (level of warmth and competence) of targets expressing a preference towards men, women, an equal preference, or no preference. In the first study, the projects presented the same number of treated patients (three patients), and in the second study, the project treating male patients was higher (four patients) than the project treating female patients (three patients). Results showed that a female preference are viewed as a more socially accepted preference than a male preference, but only when the number of treated patients in each project are equal. Also, when male targets express a female preference, they are seen as more competent than female targets with a female preference, but only when they express their preference in ratings of the project. When the number of treated patients differed between the projects, a female preference is not viewed as a more socially accepted preference than having a male preference, there were also no significant difference between how men and women were perceived in their competence level.

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Abstract  Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur pedagoger i förskoleklass tänker kring och förhåller sig till att förskoleklassen nu är en obligatorisk skolform. I bakgrunden till detta arbete får läsaren möjlighet att följa med bakåt i historien hur det kom sig att förskoleklassen blev en obligatorisk skolform. Samt att olika dilemman som kan kopplas till förskoleklassen om obligatorisk skolform beskrivs. För att samla in data har det använts semistrukturerade intervjuer där själva intervjun mer har förts i form av ett samtal med pedagogerna som deltog i studien. Jag har valt att använda mig av en explorativ design för detta arbete. I stora drag innebär det att jag som forskare med denna studie, utifrån vad som kommit fram i mina resultat, hoppas kunna skapa underlag för nya ämnen för andra att undersöka vidare kring i nya studier. Resultatet av denna studie har bekräftat den bild som jag funnit beskrivits av olika författare och forskare sedan tidigare, gällande hur det är att undervisa i en förskoleklass. Resultatet visar även på att respondenterna i denna studie upplever att det har skett förändringar gällande deras arbetssituation, ibland åt det mer negativa hållet, sedan förskoleklassen har blivit obligatorisk. I diskussionen av detta arbete har jag valt att belysa tre dilemman som även kan kopplas till de forskningsfrågor som sattes upp i samband med syftet samt till den litteratur och forskning jag valt att belysa i min bakgrund.

This research details a point of reference to understand two case studies of cooperation that developed among lower-level, or non policy-making bureaucrats during times of conflict or war. Using components of game theory, I propose that when an international conflictual relationship occurs that resembles an iterated Prisoners' Dilemma, and that meets certain conditions, tacit cooperation can emerge. Tacit cooperation consists of illicit or implied cooperation that is not sanctioned at the national policy level.In this research I develop a framework of tacit cooperation, relying heavily upon Robert Axelrod's theory of evolutionary cooperation. With the framework in place, I then explicate two international case studies, World War I trench warfare cooperation and the INF "walk in the woods" between Kvitsinsky and Nitze, to show how the theory can be used to describe ways that cooperation can occur in a hostile or conflictual environment.

Denna studie syftar till att undersöka hur specialpedagoger och speciallärare i kommunal verksamhet på högstadiet och gymnasiet upplever arbetsprocessen med att ansöka om tilläggsbelopp. Vi valde detta område för att vi har uppmärksammat och ifrågasatt hur omfattande särskilt stöd beviljas och tillgodoses. Vi har gjort en kvalitativ studie som omfattar åtta intervjuer med specialpedagoger och speciallärare i olika kommuner i Sverige. Studien utgår från John Rawls teori om rättvisa för att undersöka om tilläggsbelopp som finansieringsmodell bidrar till en likvärdig skola och om det är en rättvis och likvärdig process som säkerställer att elever i behov av omfattande särskilt stöd ges den stöttning de behöver. För att bearbeta och analysera insamlad data har tematisk analys använts. Resultatet visar att specialpedagoger och speciallärare som ansöker om tilläggsbelopp upplever processen som svårarbetad, tidskrävande och otydlig. Det råder inte samsyn mellan skolor och kommuner i landet kring vad som anses vara omfattande stödbehov och det finns inga nationella riktlinjer kring ansökningsförfarandet. Gällande formuleringarna i tilläggsbeloppsansökan anger respondenterna att de använder ett särskilt språk och specifika begrepp för att öka chansen att ansökan beviljas. De uppger att de förstärker beskrivningen av elevernas problematik för att handläggarna ska se att det föreligger ett omfattande stödbehov. De beskriver att de hamnar i ett etiskt dilemma när de tvingas skriva fram elevens alla tillkortakommanden och svårigheter för att skolan ska få mer pengar. Handläggningen och bedömningen upplevs som otydlig och godtycklig. Detta är stort problem när vi gemensamt arbetar för att skapa en likvärdig skola. Det är de mest utsatta eleverna som drabbas när specialpedagogen på deras skola inte har bemästrat konsten att söka tilläggsbelopp.