This paper investigates the effect of arbitral proceedings on bilateral portfolio equity investments in emerging markets. Investment disputes may deter foreign investors as they reveal a government’s poor behavior towards foreign investors. The analysis investigates the effects of the first initiation of arbitral proceedings, the first outcome in favor of the investor, and the first outcome in favor of the respondent state of arbitration proceedings. The database is an unbalanced panel of 55 home and 36 host countries from 2001 to 2018. Estimations do not reveal an unconditionally significant effect of arbitral proceedings on bilateral portfolio equity holdings. The impact becomes significant considering the interplay with bilateral investment treaties and political risk.

This Master of Laws dissertation is a treatise of “The efficacy of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) in labour disputes: a critical comparative analysis of Botswana, South Africa (RSA) and Zimbabwe.” Alternative Dispute Resolution hereinafter referred to as (“ADR”) has attracted so much research ado worldwide with policy makers alive to its possibilities in so far as it ought to shed off the burden of the courts in handling disputes. Courts are considered inundated with unresolved cases taking many years to finalise. ADR is therefore touted, not only the panacea, but the cheaper, efficient and effective alternative to normal court process. This study was saddled with the common challenges of definition, scope and methodology as does most scientific studies, especially to locate the concept ADR in the plethora of views from prominent exponent-s of the discipline. This study labored on the considered view that ADR is essentially an ‘out of court settlement approach to dispensing with disputes involving an attempt by disputants to rope in an impartial third party to aid finality to the respective wrangle. The lack of a methodological approach to treat this subject matter, made this study more challenging. The study had to therefore rely on a hypothetical model developed after gleaning through various scholarly views 1 that sought to treat the subject of ADR efficacy in labour dispute resolution. The study contented with the strongly held view 2 that ADR is an efficacious approach in resolving disputes outside the court system. As to whether this was the case in Botswana, RSA and Zimbabwe in so far as labour dispute resolution is concerned was the major challenge this study was seized with? A model was formulated which envisaged that efficaciousness of ADR may be achieved if three conditions or criteria are present within a jurisdiction, namely (1) ADR Background Conditions that comprise (a) adequate legislative and political support; (b) Supportive institutional and cultural norms, (c) adequate and competent manpower, (d) sufficient funding support, and (e) power-parity of disputants; (2) ADR Program Design comprising of (a) Planning and preparation and (b) Operations and implementation and finally (3) ADR Measures (a) Client satisfaction; (b) Time efficient; (c) Cost saving and (d) Settlement & enforcement. This study measured the situations obtaining in the three countries using these three-pronged criteria. In all three measures3 this study found that although all the three countries still have a long way before their ADR became as efficacious as would be reasonably possible, RSA has made many strides such as legislative enactments immediately upon attaining independence that sought to address the injustices of the past and thereby installing structures for enforcing industrial democracy 4, while Botswana and Zimbabwe took 5 years 5 and over 10 years 6 respectively after attaining independence. RSA established an independent body for dispensing with labour dispute settlement7 while Botswana8 and Zimbabwe 9 are still reluctant to do so, relying rather on their labour ministries often marinated in bureaucratic bottlenecks hence stalling efficacy of ADR. While RSA makes effort to provide adequate and competent manpower because of sufficient funding, Botswana and Zimbabwe still struggle to dispense with disputes under their labour departments who are either inadequately skilled or also accused of favouritism in the case of Zimbabwe.10 All the three countries are regarded as unequal societies which tends to sway the power-parity of disputants with capitalists still wielding unbridled powers in dispute outcomes. South Africa enacted section 143 to the Labour Relations Act 11 which empowers the Director of CCMA to certify an arbitral award, giving it the same force as an order of the Magistrate Court. This has cut off the time and administrative burden of having to register an arbitral award with the court so as to obtain writs of executions and enforce it, a practice which is still prevalent in Zimbabwe. The Department of Labour in South Africa has made funding available to the CCMA to assist employees who are not in a financial position to enforce awards in their favour.12 The funding is aimed at employees who are too indigent to afford the costs of enforcement.13 These employees are deemed to be: (a) Employees who earn below the earnings threshold (currently at R205 433.30 per annum) – proof of income will be required by the CCMA. There is no record regarding enforcement or ease of enforcement of ADR outcomes in Botswana and Zimbabwe or at least this study is aware of. The governments of Botswana and Zimbabwe have been accused of using a heavy hand in determining wages, the right to strike and often curtailing union power through declaring certain sectors essential services. RSA’s Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration hereinafter after referred to as (the “CCMA”)14 runs an electronic system of case management by which cases are screened and assigned commissioners whereas Zimbabwe and Botswana still rely on manual systems often inefficiently managed especially when it comes to allocating matters to ADR interventionists.15 In Zimbabwe the challenge of resources is acute often the Labour Officers lacking a simple photocopier and postage stamps to dispense with administration of disputes. This dissertation found that Botswana and Zimbabwe lack publicly available information from which to infer the efficaciousness of ADR practices therein. Measuring client satisfaction, efficiency and cost effectiveness, enforcement and settlement has not been tackled with ease, which was different when it came to RSA. This study argues that RSA’s ADR is efficacious rated at 75% attainment of settlement of disputes, despite accusations of failing to offer disputants options and job retention at the end of ADR intervention. Botswana and Zimbabwe on the measures raised above are not yet close to achieving efficaciousness based on the above criteria. The challenges need to be addressed to ensure that in all three measures ADR affords Botswana, RSA and Zimbabwe disputants a cheaper, efficient and effective alternative to dispensing with labour disputes. This study concluded with recommendations arising from the three measures ADR Background Conditions; ADR Program Design and (3) ADR Measures could be implemented towards achieving an efficacious ADR regime for the three countries and beyond. / Mercantile Law / LL.M.

La construction de la propriété intellectuelle au Cambodge remonte à une date récente. Cetteconstruction se traduit, d’une part, par l’adoption d’un cadre juridique consacrant la notionjuridique de la propriété intellectuelle et, d’autre part, par l’élaboration des mécanismes deprotection de la notion consacrée.Comme la législation de la propriété intellectuelle a été adoptée pour assurer la conformité dudroit cambodgien aux exigences de l’OMC, il n’est pas surprenant de constater que la notion et lerégime juridique de la propriété littéraire et artistique et ceux de la propriété industriellecambodgiennes sont presque identiques à ceux qui sont prévus dans l’Accord ADPIC et dans lesTraités et Conventions administrés par l’OMPI. À cause des obstacles d’ordre juridique,économique et social, la plupart des lois cambodgiennes de la propriété intellectuelle ne connaitpas encore une application effective et correcte dans la pratique. En conséquence, la notion de lapropriété intellectuelle cambodgienne est très peu développée.Pour faire respecter le titre de propriété littéraire et artistique et celui de la propriété industrielle,les mécanismes légaux et judiciaires visant à prévenir les atteintes au droit exclusif dont disposentles titulaires du droit, à préserver les éléments de preuves et à réprimer des atteintes sont prévusdans la législation cambodgienne portant sur la propriété intellectuelle. Par ailleurs, le recours auxmodes alternatifs de règlements de litiges tels que l’arbitrage commercial, la médiation et laPreliminary Alternative Disputes Resolution est également possible. L’efficacité et l’effectivitéde la mise en oeuvre de ces mécanismes pour la protection de la propriété intellectuelle sur leterritoire cambodgien sont une question d’actualité. / The construction of intellectual property rights in Cambodia dates back to a recent time. This construction implies, on the one hand, the adoption of a specific legal framework that establishes the notion of intellectual property and, on the other hand, the elaboration of protection mechanisms of the established notion. As the legislation on intellectual property was adopted to ensure the conformity of Cambodian law with WTO requirements, it is not surprising that the notion and legal regime of literary and artistic property and that of industrial property are almost identical to what is provided under TRIPS Agreement and other Treaties and Conventions administered by the WIPO. Because of legal, economic and social barrier, most of Cambodian laws relating to intellectual property have not been effectively and correctly applied in practice. Consequently, the notion of intellectual property has not been well developed.To enforce the exclusive right of literary and artistic property and that of industrial property, the legal and judicial mechanisms aiming at preventing infringement, preserving the proofs and punishing the infringement are provided under Cambodian legislation relating to intellectual property. Moreover, utilization of alternative disputes resolutions mechanisms such as commercial arbitration, mediation and Preliminary Alternative Disputes Resolution, is also possible. The efficiency of these mechanisms for the protection of intellectual property in Cambodia is, however, a topical question.

This study undertook a critical examination of developing countries’ experiences of infrastructure-related construction dispute resolution using Ghana as a case study. It investigated the dispute resolution processes and procedures which parties to infrastructure construction disputes employed to address such disputes. To gain a better understanding of the dispute resolution processes, the study also assessed the legal framework for procurement and contract formation and other contextual issues which influenced parties’ dispute resolution choices. Consequently, strategies for efficient and effective dispute resolution were developed. The main rationale for the study was the need for effective and efficient dispute resolution processes in the context of infrastructure projects in developing countries. The literature indicated that disputes often occurred on such projects in developing countries that were resolved at great cost mainly by arbitral tribunals in the developed world. However, there was limited information on the extent to which other dispute resolution mechanisms were utilised prior to resort to international arbitration. The study adopted a qualitative research approach informed by the interpretivist philosophical paradigm. Data was collected from fifty-six interviewees from the State as the Employer and foreign contractors through semi-structured interviews and documents and analysed using qualitative data analysis procedures associated with grounded theory research such as coding, constant comparison, memoing and diagramming, and doctrinal legal analysis. It was found that engineer’s determination, negotiation and international arbitration were the most used dispute resolution mechanisms. Others such as mediation were rarely used. The dispute resolution processes were characterised by high cost, low satisfaction with outcomes and negative effect on relationships. It was also found that the extant dispute resolution processes were the product of the nature of the parties, the context in which they operated and their responses to the context. Factors such as lack of coordination among the Employer’s sub-units, human resource constraints and political interference had varying negative impacts on dispute occurrence, dispute resolution system design and the dispute resolution processes. To deal with these challenges and achieve efficient and effective dispute resolution processes, four sets of remedial strategies (condensed into a model called the Dispute Resolution Efficiency Cycle (DREC)) were proposed. The study has provided empirical evidence which has addressed some of the gaps identified in the literature on issues such as absence of information on pre-international arbitration dispute processes. The study has also highlighted the impact of context and dispute system design on dispute resolution. Contributions to practice included diagnosing challenges with the extant dispute resolution processes and proposing possible remedial strategies.

Thesis (MA (Political Science. International Studies))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In an otherwise broad literature on civil conflict little attention has so far been paid to actual conflict violence and variation in severity. Existing work is also hampered by a reliance on a ‘closed polity’ model of the state, leading to disregard of the transnational dimensions of internal conflict, and by a dependence on over‐aggregated data. The present inquiry expands on the existing explanatory framework for variation in civil conflict severity by including transnational factors and characteristics of sub‐national actors. Data on conflict battle deaths are combined with recently available data on transnational ethnic linkages, transnational support and neighbouring conflict as well as other actor and country characteristics. Results from ordinary least squares regression analysis indicate that support for rebel groups from external non‐state actors increase conflict severity, while rebel presence in other states is associated with less severe conflicts. In addition, severity increases with duration but with a diminishing marginal return. Internal armed conflicts are less severe in democratic and ethnically polarised countries but rebel territorial control increases the level of violence. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In die andersins omvangryke literatuur oor burgerlike konflik is daar tot op hede min aandag geskenk aan werklike konflikgeweld en variasie in felheid (vernietigende omvang). Bestaande werk word ook belemmer omdat dit staat maak op ’n model van die staat as ‘geslote regering’, wat lei tot verontagsaming van die transnasionale dimensies van interne konflik, en staat maak op oor‐geaggregeerde data. Hierdie ondersoek brei uit op die bestaande verklarende raamwerk vir variasie in felheid van burgerlike konflik deur transnasionale faktore en eienskappe van subnasionale deelnemers in te sluit. Data oor konflikgevegsterftes is gekombineer met onlangse data oor transnasionale etniese koppelings, transnasionale steun en naburige konflik, sowel as ander deelnemer‐ en landeienskappe. Resultate van gewone kleinstekwadrate‐regressie‐analise dui daarop dat steun aan rebellegroepe deur eksterne nie‐staatsdeelnemers konflikfelheid laat toeneem, terwyl rebelleteenwoordigheid in ander lande geassosieer word met minder fel konflikte. Felheid neem ook toe saam met duur maar met ’n afnemende marginale opbrengs. Interne gewapende konflikte is minder fel in demokratiese en etnies gepolariseerde lande, maar rebellebeheer oor grondgebied verhoog die vlak van geweld.

Thesis (MPhil (Political Science))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / This study undertakes to look at the relationship between peace agreements and the violence that follows these agreements. Throughout modern history, there are examples of peace agreements between two warring internal factions that ended in post-conflict violence and in extreme cases, to the end of the peace agreement. It does not necessarily lead to full out war, but can manifest in riots, like Malaysia and criminal violence in South Africa. This study attempts to compare both South Africa and Malaysia by looking specifically at the reasons for post conflict violence. South Africa has faced a growing problem with violent crime after the negotiations of the early 1990’s and its result, the new constitution of 1993, that functioned as the peace agreement. Malaysia moved through several constitutions to arrive at their constitution of 1957 that which viewed as their constitutional agreement. This constitutional agreement went to great lengths to protect the sons of the soil, the bumiputra. The uneasy peace only lasted until 1969, when race riots followed the general elections and left hundreds dead or injured. By studying South Africa and Malaysia and looking at the underlying factors of violence, with special focus on ethnic factors and especially poverty, can we move closer to the underlying causes of post conflict violence. Malaysia tried to address these problems by making constitutional amendments, following the 1969 riots. These amendments were implemented in 1972. Since then the problem of post conflict violence has been addressed to some extent. There are however, still factors of violence that have not been completely eradicated, that might lead to a flaring of violence again one day. The question that this thesis tries to address in the end is, if we need to consider and implement constitutional amendments, like Malaysia, to address our growing problem of post conflict violence. I attempt here to answer this question, comparing the histories of South Africa and Malaysia and the underlying factors of violence to see exactly how similar these states are and if the same solution can work for both.

Au-delà des limites économiques (dues à la libéralisation des échanges commerciaux), scientifiques (dues aux risques incertains) et juridiques (dues aux instruments non-contraignants), l'encadrement juridique international des mouvements transfrontières des organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM) est-il approprié pour la protection de la santé humaine, la santé animale et la protection de l'environnement, dans son contenu et sa mise en œuvre ? Le contenu du cadre juridique quant aux mouvements transfrontières des OGM est incomplet avec des instruments légaux directement applicables et des instruments indirectement applicables. Pour combler ces lacunes dans le sens d'une meilleure gouvernance des mouvements transfrontières des OGM, la réglementation de catégories additionnelles des mouvements transfrontières des OGM est primordiale ainsi que la mise en place d'un dispositif harmonisé d'identification, de traçabilité et d'étiquetage. Un système de biovigilance internationale est également recommandé, comprenant la vigilance par une évaluation harmonisée des risques, le suivi par un système de gestion harmonisée des risques et l'information par un système harmonisé de communication des risques. Le cadre juridique quant aux mouvements transfrontières des OGM est aussi limité dans ses effets, de par l'absence d'un régime international de responsabilité et de réparation quant aux dommages résultant des OGM car le récent Protocole additionnel de Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur sur la responsabilité et la réparation des dommages résultant des mouvements transfrontières, ne visent que les organismes vivants modifiés (OVM). Il y a également un manque de consensus dans les approches, l'application et le règlement des différends. Dans ce contexte, la mise en place d'un système de compensation collective ou encore d'un fonds d'indemnisation et de régime d'assurance, sont un accompagnement nécessaire à ce régime de responsabilité incomplet, afin de pouvoir indemniser les victimes potentielles et les dommages environnementaux résultant des mouvements transfrontières des OGM. / Beyond economic (due to trade liberalisation), scientific (due to uncertain risks involved) and legal boundaries (due to soft law instruments), is the international legal framework for transboundary movements pertaining to Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), adequate for the protection of human and animal health as well as environmental protection, content-wise and in its implementation? The content of this framework is incomplete with direct and indirect legal instruments. In order to fill in the gaps for a better governance of transboundary movements of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), it is of utmost importance to regulate additional categories of transboundary movement of GMOs and to devise a harmonised system of identification, traceability and labelling. A three-pronged international system of “bioalertness” is highly recommended, with the need for a harmonised risk assessment system, an effective risk management system and a harmonised system of communication of information on biotechnological risks. The legal framework pertaining to transboundary movements of GMOs is limited in its effects, in as much as there is no liability regime for the reparation of damages resulting from transboundary movements of GMOs since the Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Additionnal Protocol targets only damages resulting from LMOs and it still has to be ratified by States Parties and enter into force. Its implementation is limited to the extent that there is a lack of consensus on the approaches, implementation and dispute resolution procedures. In this context, the setting-up of a collective system of compensation or a compensation fund as well as an insurance regime are a must, to be able to indemnify potential victims and repair environmental damage resulting from transboundary movements of GMOs.

Research on ethnicity and conflict treats the concept of ethnicity as defining the actors in these conflicts, whereas research on the construction and maintenance of ethnic identity explores why ethnicity unifies individuals into a single social group. What happens when this unifying concept is divided between two enemy countries? How does this situation influence peace settlements over territorial issues, armed conflict, and economic relations between these countries? To answer these questions, I create a continuous measure of ethnic similarity between rivals. I find that ethnic similarity can facilitate cooperation and exacerbate conflictual interactions between rivals, but governments will seek to limit interactions with their rival when the cross border ethnic groups are minorities. In addition, I create categorical predictors of ethnic similarity, which reveal nuances in these relationships. Specifically, rivalries sharing a pan-ethnic identity are more likely to engage in conflict regardless of actual ethnic similarity, and dyads with a majority in one country sharing ethnicity with a minority in another country are less likely to fight once in a state of rivalry. This is because a quid pro quo exists between these rivals where one rival can reduce oppression of the minority in exchange for the other rival not supporting secessions by their co-ethnics. These pairs of rivals also are more likely to attempt peace settlements. Contested nations, which are rivalry-dyads with similar ethnic majorities, are both the most likely of the ethnically similar rival categories to engage in militarized interstate disputes, but also engage in larger amounts of interstate trade.

Legal Status of the Financial Arbiter in Comparison with Selected Regulatory and Control Institutions in the Czech Republic and EU The topic of my thesis is legal status of the Financial arbiter in the Czech Republic. It represent a specific institution for out-of-court settlement of financial disputes between providers of some financial services and their clients. The Financial arbiter does not substitute the role of courts; instead it operates alongside the judicial system and offers to the clients of financial institutions swift and free of charge alternative to the legal proceedings, which emphasizes reconciliation. In the opening chapter of this thesis I looked into the theoretical concept of this institution and characterized it as an administrative authority sui generis. In order to obtain better understanding of the institutional status of the Financial arbiter, I further compared the Financial arbiter with similar institutions in the Czech Republic and the EU. I consider the separation from the Czech National Bank and the creation of the Financial arbiter bureau, which is a government department, as a major change in the legal status of the Financial arbiter. The arbitration proceeding represents an alternative to the legal proceedings. It can be initiated only by a client`s complaint, for...

La notion de juridiction gracieuse est traditionnellement rattachée à l’activité du juge civil. Le juge administratif connaît pourtant d’une activité gracieuse a côté de son activité contentieuse. Entendue comme l’activité du juge en dehors de tout litige, elle est peu étudiée en droit administratif, mais largement analysée en droit judiciaire privé. Il pourtant est intéressant de comparer la manière dont les juges envisagent leur office dans le cadre gracieux, et d’approfondir les points communs et les divergences entre les deux régimes juridiques. Le développement d’une telle activité peut cependant apparaître paradoxal à l’heure où les tribunaux sont toujours plus engorgés et l’attrait pour les modes alternatifs de règlement des litiges, toujours plus développé. La progression de l’activité d’homologation de certains actes administratifs et notamment des transactions peut cependant permettre d’éviter la longueur d’un procès. Cette nouvelle procédure peut ainsi favoriser le renouvellement du principe de sécurité juridique et d’envisager sous un nouvel angle la définition de la fonction juridictionnelle du juge administratif. / The notion of non-contentious jurisdiction is traditionally connected to the activity of the civil judge. Still, the administrative judge administers contentious as well as non-contentious justice. Understood as the activity of the judge outside of any litigation, it is little studied in administrative law but widely examined in private judiciary law. Nevertheless, it is interesting to compare the way judges consider their office in a non-contentious frame as well as analyse further the common points and the differences between the two juridical regimes. However, the development of such an activity can appear paradoxical when courts keep being more and more congested and when the attraction for alternative ways of settling disputes keeps developing. Yet, the progression of the certification activity of some administrative acts, including transactions, can make it possible to avoid the length of a trial. This new procedure can thus favor the renewal of the principle of juridical security and makes it possible to consider from a new point of view the definition of the jurisdictional function of the administrative judge.