This thesis examines the processes of the peace negotiations in Cambodia (1987-1993) and El Salvador (1989-1993) in order to address the following question: What does the interplay between the national factions and the external interveners in peace negotiations tell us about their chances of achieving their goals? By using the concept of ‘interplay,’ this study reinterprets the negotiation processes as the negotiating actors’ exchanges of strategic moves. In particular, it explores how the negotiating actors’ attitudes towards the core negotiation issues changed in the two cases and how the changes affected their counterparts’ negotiating strategies. There are two aspects to the findings of this thesis, one descriptive and the other explanatory. First, this study has investigated the characteristics of the negotiating actors’ strategies and the pattern of the interplay between them. As for the interveners’ strategies, this thesis finds that impartial third parties generally employ diplomatic intervention methods, while advocate states enjoy a wider range of options. In addition, national factions’ behaviour is generally affected by three factors: their fundamental goals, the domestic resources under their control, and the incentives or pressure from external interveners. It is also observed that the stronger the intervention becomes, the more that national factions’ provisional strategies are inclined to be receptive towards the intervention. Nevertheless, the national factions rarely fully accepted proposals that they deemed harmful to the achievement of their fundamental goals. Second, based on the descriptive findings, this thesis highlights the importance of mutual understanding between national factions and external interveners. The case studies of Cambodia and El Salvador show that the effectiveness of a particular intervention depends not so much on the type of method employed but on the context in which it is applied. An intervention is more likely to be effective when it is used in a way that national factions can understand and is supported by the consistently strong attention of external interveners. In addition, it is observed that actors’ ethnocentric perceptions on core concepts of conflict and negotiation as well as their lack of an effective communication capability are some of the common causes of the misunderstandings that arise during negotiation processes.

Approved for public release, distribution is unlimited / This thesis studies police reform in El Salvador and South Africa. While both countries differ considerably in geographic size, culture, location, population, and economic and military strength, they share common security concerns. Under authoritarian rule, their primary security concerns were not military threats from other states, but rather internal threats due to economic, political, and social weakness. Civilian police forces became highly politicized and militarized, incapable of controlling crime, lacking accountability and oversight, and exhibiting total disregard for human rights. This thesis compares El Salvador and South Africa, two cases of negotiated war transitions. Although both countries faced similar militarization of internal security forces, South Africa seemed in a much better position to face challenges of consolidation. First, South Africa's military did not pose any opposition to police reform because the military and police had a long history of being organizationally separated. In contrast, El Salvador's police had a history of being controlled and directed by the military and they fell organizationally under the Defense Ministry. Second, in South Africa, the opposition group (ANC) rather than the rightist government won the foundational elections. Increased domestic support for internal security reform is more likely as the previous rightist government is discredited. Conversely, in El Salvador, the rightist ARENA government won the foundational elections indicating that it would more likely lead to lack of domestic support. The continuance of power would likely mean that the government would prefer the continuance of status quo to far-reaching reform. Finally, the international community was available to aid in the implementation and consolidation of reform in both countries. However, because domestic support was likely to be greater in South Africa, the international community's ability to influence the implementation of reform would also be greater. Yet, the outcome of reform efforts in both countries was surprisingly similar. This can best be explained by the overwhelming obstacles to the consolidation of police reform posed by the conditions of post-conflict societies. / Major, New Hampshire Air National Guard

Die Beschäftigungsfähigkeit ist einer der größten Anliegen in El Salvador, besonders für Jugendlichen (UNPD, 2008). Außerdem betont die Studie über die Herausforderungen des Bildungssystems in El Salvador die Notwendigkeit, eine Anknüpfung zwischen Akademie und Industrie zu haben (Barraza, 2008). In diesem Kontext begann El Salvador in 2008 die Umsetzung von einigen Elementen des Deutschen Dualsystems (neues System) im Bereich der technologischen Ausbildung, mit der Absicht, einen Versuch zu machen ob dieses System bessere Kompetenzen bei Studenten entwickelt, welche ihnen bessere Arbeitseinsatzmöglichkeiten anbietet. Im Dualsystem wird die Ausbildung von der Akademie und Industriesektor geleistet. Grundsätzliche Ziele waren: (1) Analyse der Einflüsse zur Ansteigung der Beschäftigungsfähigkeit unter Gebrauch einer besseren Kombination von Theorie und Praxis während des Studiums – Möglichkeiten einer Dualerfahrung aus Deutschland unter den Bedingungen in El Salvador (2) Analyse der Möglichkeiten und Probleme unter Berücksichtigung des Kompetenzschwerpunktes für die Entwicklung und Beschäftigungsfähigkeit der Studenten; (3) Festlegung, ob die Studenten mit Studienausgang in 2008-2010, die im Dualsystem teilgenommen haben, bessere berufliche Kompetenzen zur Einsetzung im Produktivprozess erlangt haben im Vergleich zu diejenigen aus dem traditionalem System (ohne Unternehmenserfahrung); (4) Festlegung der Einflussfaktoren die den Industriesektor an der Teilnahme am Dualsystem motivieren; und (5) Darstellung der Folgen aus der Umsetzung dieses Systems unter den salvadorianischen Gegebenheiten und Anregungen zu deren Anpassung zu entwickeln. Bei der Untersuchung ging es um die Erstellung eines Vergleichs zwischen Studenten der Studienrichtung Mechatronik mit Ausgang in 2008 – 2010; ein Student aus dem Dualsystem und einer aus dem traditionellen System. Die angewandte wissenschaftliche Methodologie war eine Verknüpfung von einer quantitativen und qualitativen Methode mit Fragebogen, Interviews und Messungen der Kompetenzen, nötige Zeit zum Erwerben einer Arbeitsstelle und Gehaltsbedingungen. Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung waren: (a) Beide Gruppen hatten ähnliche Kompetenzen laut ihrer akademischen Benotung, aber bessere Kompetenzen für die Duale Gruppe wenn Arbeitsbedingungen eingeschlossen sind. In Bezug auf die Motivation der Entscheidungsträgern hat die Untersuchung folgendes erwiesen: (1) Vorherige Kenntnis über das System (2) Personen sind mit bessere Kompetenzen bedarfsgerecht für die Industrie ausgebildet; (3) Minderung des Risikos, falsche Leute aufzunehmen; (4) Optimierung der Ausbildungskosten, (5) Innovation einer neuen Studienrichtung die vom Unternehmen benötigt wird; (6) Soziale Verantwortung; und (7) Verbesserung der Produktivität und Qualität. Schlussfolgerung ist, das Dualsystem könnte eine Möglichkeit für die Verbesserung der Kompetenzniveaus als auch für die Beschäftigungsfähigkeit der Studenten in El Salvador sein, jedoch bringt es neue Herausforderungen für das technologische Ausbildungssystem. / Employability is one of the biggest concerns in El Salvador, especially for young people (UNPD, 2008). Besides, the study about challenges in the educative system in El Salvador, outlines the necessity to have a link between academy and industry (Barraza, 2008). Under this context 2008, El Salvador began the implementation of some elements of the German Dual System (New system) in technological education, with the purpose to experiment if this system developed better competences in students allowing them better job opportunities. In Dual System, the formation is developed between the academy and the enterprise. The main purposes were: (1) To analyze influences to rise employability under using of better combination of theory and practice in studies - possibilities of dual experiences from Germany for El Salvador`s conditions; (2) to analyze possibilities and problems using competences approach for student’s development and employability; (3) to determine if the students of cohort 2008-2010 who study under dual system acquire better professional competences to be inserted in the productive process that those from traditional system (without enterprise curriculum); (4) to determine the factors that motivates industrialists to participate in dual system; and (5) to show consequences of implement this system under the Salvadoran reality and develop suggestions its adaptation. The research was comparing students from cohort 2008 – 2010 in Mechatronic career; one in dual and other in traditional system. The scientific methodology to apply were a combination of quantitative and qualitative method with questionnaires, interviews and measurements about competences, time to get a job and the salary conditions. Results of the research are: (a) both groups had similar competences according academics grades, but better competences for Dual group when jobs conditions are included. About decision makers motivations, findings were: (1) Previous knowledge about the system; (2) People with better competences according the needs of the company; (3) to reduce the risk to hire wrong people; (4) Optimize training costs, (5) the innovation of a new career that enterprise needs; (6) social responsibility; and (7) to improve the productivity and quality. In conclusion, Dual system could be an opportunity in El Salvador for improving the level of competences, and the employability of the students, but it means new challenges in technological educational system.

A intenção deste estudo é relacionar o bispo Óscar Romero (sua atuação pública, sua prática pastoral e seu coração, elementos que transparecem na palavra de suas homilias) com o teólogo Jon Sobrino. Representantes de carismas eclesiais complementares, ambos só podem ser compreendidos no horizonte do povo salvadoreño crente e pobre, particularmente o povo cristão das Comunidades Eclesiais de Base (CEBs), terceiro elemento de um tríptico. Sobrino é representante da teologia latino-americana da libertação e privilegiado intérprete teológico de Romero. Entre ambos se verificam coincidências de fundo (temáticas e epistemológicas) que se iluminam reciprocamente. Dos escritos de Sobrino, recolhemos tanto as alusões diretas a Romero quanto a presença implícita deste permeando o pensar do teólogo. Ao valorizar a dimensão histórica e a memória, nossa pesquisa não se propõe a tarefa do historiador. E refletindo sobre temas teológicos, não se constitui num estudo sistemático. A atenção está dirigida à discussão de como uma significativa experiência de um passado recente e tão denso pode seguir iluminando nosso presente e nosso futuro. Localizamo-nos, portanto, num limiar, de modo que este trabalho pode ser inserido na linha de uma teologia fundamental para a América Latina no século XXI, uma vez que põe a pergunta por algumas das condições para o pensar teológico em nosso continente nas próximas décadas. Preocupação constante é a questão da atualidade de Romero. Para além das enormes diferenças, identificamos importantes semelhanças entre o nosso contexto e o seu, particularmente no tocante à realidade dos pobres. A prática de Romero se revela como uma concreção histórica do que há de permanente no Evangelho. O encontro com Deus no encontro com os pobres expressa o âmago da sua experiência (espiritual e pastoral) cristã. Esta vem consignada na expressão sempre o bem dos pobres, um metaparadigma que ultrapassa as contingências de cada época e precisa ser constantemente reafirmado. Esse pressuposto de que a opção pelos pobres é algo que permanece sintetiza uma faceta também nuclear da teologia de Jon Sobrino. Nesse entrecruzar do retrospectivo e do prospectivo, buscamos recolher uma herança, e inquirir pela sua pertinência para novas circunstâncias históricas. Emergem, assim, perguntas: que significado tem para os pobres as grandes transformações de hoje, a propalada mudança de época? Como continuar assumindo a realidade da pobreza injusta, o clamor e a vida mesma das pessoas e povos empobrecidos, crucificados (ainda que com novos rostos), como fato maior, mediação central e eixo estruturante de uma teologia que se propõe a acompanhar a caminhada das vítimas? Como elaborar uma reflexão consistente que dê conta da nova situação do mundo, mas que o faça em diálogo com a tradição libertadora e a herança da irrupção dos pobres? Reconhecemos, desse modo, a relevância da dimensão libertadora para hoje, sem localizá-la num passado supostamente já superado (o que equivaleria a um esquema substitutivo: antes, a libertação; agora, os novos paradigmas). Nosso estudo permitiu entrever também uma sutil disputa pela imagem e identidade de Romero, pela interpretação do seu legado. Nossa convicção é que estar historicamente comprometido com a causa dos pobres é a melhor chave de leitura para adentrar no espírito de Romero. Afastando-se dessa perspectiva, o intérprete distancia-se do próprio Romero. Por fim, da experiência de Romero é ressaltada a dimensão da proximidade com os pobres. Desde aí se postula a possibilidade de uma teologia marginal que, sem renunciar ao rigor reflexivo, busque acompanhar mais de perto o cotidiano de quem habita as periferias de nosso mundo / The intention of this study is to relate the bishop Oscar Romero (his public performance, his practice and his pastoral heart, elements which are reflected in the words of his homilies) with the theologian Jon Sobrino. Representatives of complementary ecclesial charisms, both can only be understood against the background of Salvadoreño believer and poor people, particularly the people of the Christian Base Communities (Comunidades Eclesiais de Base, or CEBs), third element of a triptych. Sobrino is representative of the Latin American theology of liberation and a privileged interpreter of Romero. Deep coincidences occur between both (substantive and epistemological issues) that enlighten each other. From Sobrino's writings, we collect both direct allusions to Romero as the implicit presence of this pervading the thinking of the theologian. By valuing the historical dimension and memory, our research does not propose the task of the historian. And reflecting on theological themes, does not constitute a systematic study. Attention is directed to the discussion of how significant experience of the recent and so dense past can follow illuminating our present and our future. We found ourselves, as a threshold, so that this work can be inserted into the line of a fundamental theology for Latin America in the XXI century, since it put the question for some of the conditions for theological thinking in our continent in the next decades. Constant concern is the issue of timeliness of Romero. Apart from the enormous differences, we identify important similarities between our framework and his own, particularly regarding the reality of the poor. The practice of Romero reveals itself as a historical concretion of what is permanent in the Gospel. Encountering God in the encounter with the poor expresses the core of his Christian experience (spiritual and pastoral). This is enshrined in the expression always the good for the poor, a metaparadigm that exceeds the contingencies of every age and need to be constantly reaffirmed. This assumption that the option for the poor is something that remains synthesizes a facet also in the nuclear theology of Jon Sobrino. In this interlacing of retrospective and prospective, we seek to collect an inheritance, and ask for its pertinency to new historical circumstances. Questions thus emerge: what does it mean for the poor the great transformations of today, the vaunted change of epoch? How to continue assuming the reality of unjust poverty, and the cry and life itself of the impoverished people, crucified (albeit with new faces), as larger fact, central mediation and structural axis of a theology that purports to follow the walk of victims? How to develop a consistent reflection that takes account of the new situation in the world, but to do so in dialogue with the liberating tradition and the heritage of irruption of the poor? We recognize thereby the relevance of the liberating dimension for today, without locating it in a supposedly already surpassed past (which would amount to a replacement scheme "before the liberation, and now the new paradigms"). Our study also allowed a glimpse of a subtle struggle for image and identity of Romero, by the interpretation of his legacy. Our belief is that being historically committed to the cause of the poor is the best reading key to enter into the spirit of Romero. Moving away from this perspective, the interpreter distances himself from Romero himself. Finally, from the experience of Romero is highlighted the dimension of the proximity to the poor. Since then we postulate the possibility of a marginal theology that, without renouncing reflexive rigor, seeks to more closely follow the daily life of those who inhabit the peripheries of our world.

[pt] Honduras e El Salvador, desde a época de suas independências, em 1821, têm uma relação bastante conflituosa. Após várias tentativas de resolução pacífica de suas disputas fronteiriças, alguns fatores demográficos, políticos e sócioeconômicos são agregados à natureza da relação desses dois Estados e dão origem, em julho de 1969, a um confronto armado conhecido por - Guerra do Futebol - ou - Guerra das Cem Horas -.A resolução imediata, ou administração, da Guerra do Futebol foi realizada pela Organização dos Estados Americanos (OEA), através da atuação coordenada de quatro de seus órgãos: a Comissão Interamericana de Direitos Humanos, o Conselho Permanente, o Secretário Geral e a Reunião de Consulta dos Ministros das Relações Exteriores. A principal contribuição do presente trabalho, trazida à tona através da análise da ação coletiva da OEA no caso em estudo, permite concluir que esta organização exerceu três importantes papéis, que contribuíram para a resolução imediata da Guerra do Futebol, a saber: (i) ator autônomo; (ii) modificador do comportamento do Estado; e (iii) arena/espaço de discussão. Ademais, trata-se de um conflito que não conta com a participação, direta ou indireta, do membro mais poderoso da OEA, o que configura uma exceção à política intervencionista norteamericana para a América Latina na década de 1960. / [en] Honduras and El Salvador, since their independences in 1821, have a conflicting relationship. After countless attempts to achieve a peaceful resolution in their frontier disputes, new factors - demographic, political and socioeconomical - are added to the nature of the relationship between these two states and would give rise, in July 1969, to a armed conflict known as - Soccer War - or Hundred-years War -. The immediate resolution of the Soccer War was accomplished by the Organization of the American States (OAS), through a coordinated action of four of its main bodies, that is, of the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, the Permanent Council, the Secretary-General and the Meeting of Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs.The main contribution of this study, brought up through the analysis of the OAS collective action in this case, leads to the conclusion that this organization has played three main roles, which have largely contributed to the immediate resolution of the Soccer War, namely (i) autonomous actor; (ii) modifier of state behavior; and (iii) forum/space for dialogue. Moreover, it is worth noting that the most powerful member of the OAS has not participated, nor direct or indirect, to the achievement of the immediate resolution of this conflict, which can be considered as an exception to the North-American interventionist politics towards Latin America in the 1960s.

Es el propósito de este studio presenter y evaluar el fruto de las observaciones y entrevistas realizadas durante el verano de 1969 en San Salvador sobre la enseňanza de inglés en el Centro El Savador-Estados Unidos. También es el propósito de este studio ofrecer una pequeňa contribución en el campo del inglés como Segundo idioma y tal vez estimular una investigación más amplia acerca de la enseňanza del inglés en la América Latina.

This case study explored the lived experiences of 8 participants in a microfinance sewing program in El Salvador. Numerous studies focused on empowering women by employing microfinance projects or programs in many countries; however, a lack of empirical data exists regarding Salvadoran women's perceptions about how a sewing program with teamwork affects women's empowerment. The purpose of this case study was to understand the women's personal stories, their obstacles as well as any factors they saw as empowering them. Guided by a constructionist framework, a sample of 8 participants: 5 who were sewing students and 3 who were employees, who shared their administrative perspectives about participants' skills, data collection and data analysis methods gained. Five themes emerged from the women's interviews about their sewing program experience: (a) program effect on women's well-being; (b) gained a means of income; (c) increased self-efficacy, confidence, and security; (d) worked in groups or teams; and (e) the teacher's positive influence. The 5 sewing student participants reported they developed self-efficacy and self-fulfillment in the sewing program. The women attributed their success to the teacher, who taught them sewing skills and provided guidance and encouragement. This study contributes to social change by providing insight for additional women's studies on women's empowerment, social work with families and children, and for MSW social work students.

Se plantea un edificio de salud donde la prioridad es una arquitectura que influya de manera positiva en el comportamiento humano y que resuelva la función y las necesidades espaciales adecuadamente. El objetivo principal del proyecto es brindar bienestar al usuario, se diseña cuidadosamente cada espacio teniendo en cuenta el tiempo de permanencia de los pacientes. Por ejemplo, las salas de espera se resuelven como espacios que se prolongan al exterior mediante grandes ventanales en las fachadas y permiten su iluminación y contacto con el paisaje natural en los tiempos de espera. Finalmente, el centro de salud se integra al espacio urbano y genera espacios públicos para la población de Villa El Salvador. / Tesis

Health care played an important role in the revolutions of El Salvador and Nicaragua. Both the Sandinistas and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) prioritized popular health throughout the 1980s. Clinics and hospitals served as sites of revolution that drew healthcare solidarity activists from the United States. These health internationalists worked to build community-level networks that relied upon trained medical volunteers. In both El Salvador and Nicaragua, women comprised a bulk of the community health workers. These women chose to interact with revolution by building on radical promises of universal healthcare access. Healthcare solidarity activists trained community volunteers and encouraged women to pursue their own needs within the revolutionary frameworks. Health internationalists actively undermined United States’ policies toward Central America. In the 1980s, the United States implemented economic policies and supported military violence that targeted healthcare infrastructure. In training community health workers, treating civilians, sharing knowledge through international exchange, and sending funds and medical supplies, health activists mitigated some of the damage being done. This thesis posits that health care was an important site of revolution for Central Americans and internationalists alike. By choosing to mend bodies, medical activists stood in direct opposition to the violence of the decade. They also served as fundamental to the revolution because they helped carry out the will of the people. The revolutions rested on the hope of improving the lives of every day Nicaraguans and Salvadorans. As the violence of the 1980s forced the guerillas of El Salvador and the leaders of Nicaragua to focus on war, the people continued to implement revolutionary health goals at the community level. This thesis argues that understanding how health internationalists, women, and community activists engaged revolutionary ideas of medicine is vital to the study of 1980s Central America.

Actualmente, el interés por las Artes Escénicas ha incrementado en el país. Sin embargo, este crecimiento no va de la mano con la infraestructura destinada a la presentación y enseñanza de este tipo de arte. El proyecto toma como punto de partida esta realidad y busca construir espacios adecuados para difusión y formación de las artes escénicas que, además, promuevan la relación entre el estudiante y los espectadores. Asimismo, se pretende integrar el edificio con la ciudad en contraposición a los referentes de infraestructura nacional analizados. / Nowadays, the interest for the Scenic Arts has increased in the country. Nevertheless, this growth does not have relation with the infrastructure destined for the presentation and education of this type of art. The project takes this issue as a start to propose appropriate spaces for diffusion and formation of the scenic arts that, in addition, promote the relation between the student and the spectators. Likewise, one tries to integrate the building with the city in contraposition to the modals of national infrastructure analyzed. / Tesis