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Fear of crime may differ between areas, even if levels of crime do not differ. Policymakers and companies should be interested in how much economical values individuals put on their emotions. No previous paper has tried to estimate the economic consequences of the kind of fear of crime that does not stem from an increase in crime. Through a hedonic fixed effect-approach and a unique data set, I close this gap by estimating the willingness to pay to avoid that fear. As the outcome variable, I use sold apartments in Stockholm municipality in the years 2017 and 2020. I find suggestive evidence of small to moderate effect of fear of crime on housing prices, even after controlling for crime levels, with an elasticity of -2% to -6%. The results are robust throughout different robustness tests. These findings may help politicians in their cost-benefit analyses when planning safety-increasing projects.

I dagens samhälle har den brottslighet som drabbar företagen blivit vardag och de efterföljande konsekvenserna är många. I Landskrona kommun har ungefär hälften av handelsidkarna blivit utsatta för brott och en majoritet är oroliga för att drabbas. Till följd av denna problematik syftar studien till att fördjupa förståelsen gällande Landskronas handelsidkares upplevelser av oro och utsatthet för brott, hur de arbetar mot problematiken idag samt vilka åtgärder de önskar implementeras. Utifrån resultatet har även åtgärdsförslag utarbetats. För att uppnå studiens syfte tillämpades åtta kvalitativa intervjuer med handelsidkare i Landskrona. En tematisk analys av intervjuerna resulterade i sex teman; oro för utsatthet, utsatthet, förändring, tillämpade åtgärder, rättssystemet och önskade åtgärder. Resultatet visade att majoriteten av handelsidkarna inte upplevde en oro att utsättas för brott samt att det skett en positiv utveckling i Landskrona. Alla deltagare vittnade om en utsatthet för brott där stöldbrottslighet drabbade dem främst. Dock polisanmäldes endast vissa brott och det framkom ett missnöje gällande att anmälningar sällan resulterade i något. Från intervjuerna framträdde även en okunskap gällande hur och när polisanmälningar kan och bör genomföras. Handelsidkarnas åtgärder inkluderar bland annat kamerabevakning, väktare, skalskydd, kommunikation, uppmärksamhet mot kunder och larm. Deltagarna önskar främst mer poliser och väktare i stan, fler bevakningskameror och förbättrad kommunikation. För att öka tryggheten och minska brottsutsattheten bland handelsidkare i Landskrona föreslås 1) utbildningsinsatser om polisanmälan och andra lagar och regler som är av relevans för handelsidkare, 2) ökad kommunikation via appen Säkerhetscenter och 3) ökad samverkan mellan kommun, skola, polis och handelsidkare. Förslag på framtida forskning inkluderar bland annat att liknande studier genomförs i andra städer eller med andra deltagare. / Crime affects businesses everyday, and the consequences that follow are numerous. About half of the retailers in Landskrona were victims of crime, with many fearful of victimization. As a result of this problem, the study aims to deepen the understanding of Landskrona’s retailers’ experiences of fear of crime and crime victimization, how they are currently addressing the problem, and what measures they would want to see implemented. Based on the results, three crime prevention strategies have been proposed. The research questions were answered by conducting eight qualitative interviews with retailers in central Landskrona. A thematic analysis of the interviews resulted in six themes: fear of crime, experiences of victimization, development, implemented measures, the legal system, and desired actions. The results indicated that a majority of retailers did not experience a significant fear of being victimized and that the overall development in Landskrona has been positive. All participants had been victims of crime and theft were the most common. However, few crimes were reported to the police and the retailers expressed discontent with the fact that reports rarely result in anything. The result also showed a lack of knowledge regarding how and when a crime should be reported. Crime prevention strategies used by the retailers include surveillance cameras, security guards, exterior protection, communication, attentiveness to customers, and alarms. There was a desire for enhanced police and security guards on patrol, increased camera surveillance, and communication with other retailers. To reduce fear of crime and victimization among retailers in Landskrona, this study proposes 1) educational initiatives regarding reporting crime, 2) improved communication through an app, and 3) increased collaboration between the municipality, schools, police, and retailers. Proposals for future research include among other things that similar studies are conducted in other cities or with other participants.

Med tanke på den ökande oron som finns kring brottslighet och otrygghet är det viktigt att reflektera över vilka som bär ansvaret för att främja den kollektiva tryggheten. Tidigare forskning visar bland annat att brottslighet eller rädslan för att brott ska inträffa påverkar grannskapet och den psykiska hälsan på ett negativt sätt. Forskning visar även att genom samverkan mellan olika aktörer såsom polis, fastighetsägare och allmänhet, kan trygghetssatsningar bidra till ökad upplevd trygghet.    Denna studie ämnar bidra till forskningen om hur fastighetsägaren, tillsammans med hyresgästernas engagemang, kan påverka den positiva utvecklingen i ett bostadsområde och bidra till ett tryggare samhälle för bostadshyresgäster. Studien har en kvalitativ ansats och har kombinerat en fallstudie i Södra Sofielund/Seved med semistrukturerade intervjuer med nyckelpersoner inom fastighetsbranschen i aktuellt område. Syftet med studien är att undersöka på vilket sätt fastighetsägare samarbetar med hyresgäster i ett bostadsområde för att öka den upplevda tryggheten.    Resultatet visade att respondenterna har olika syn på hur mycket hyresgästerna kan involveras i trygghetsarbetet. Dock är majoriteten av respondenterna överens om att det behövs engagemang och trygghetsinsatser för att skapa sammanhållning och möjligheter för sociala interaktioner i området. För att möjliggöra för dessa insatser behövs dessutom samverkan, inte bara med de boende, utan med olika samhällsaktörer för att bekämpa effekterna av rädslan för brott. / Considering the increasing concern surrounding crime and insecurity, it is important to reflect on who bears responsibility for promoting collective security. Previous research indicates, among other things, that crime or the fear of crime negatively impacts neighborhoods and mental health. Research also shows that through collaboration among various societal stakeholders, including the police, property owners and the public, security initiatives can contribute to an increased sense of security.   This study aims to contribute to the research on how property owners, together with the engagement of tenants, can influence the positive development in a residential area and contribute to a safer society for residential tenants. The study has a qualitative approach and has combined a case study in Södra Sofielund/Seved with semi-structured interviews with key figures in the real estate industry in the relevant area. The purpose of the study is to examine how property owners collaborate with tenants in a residential area to enhance perceived security.   The results indicate that respondents have different views on the extent to which tenants can be involved in security work. However, the majority of respondents agree that involvement and security efforts are needed to create a sense of community and opportunities for social interactions in the area. Furthermore, to enable these efforts, collaboration is required not only with residents but also with various societal actors to combat the effects of the fear of crime.

Violent cnme is among the most prominent distinguishing characteristics of South African society, it has a severely traumatising effect on the populations concerned. Based on research :findings and existing literature, this study explores traumatic effects of violent crime on the most intimate associate of the victim (the partner). Accordingly, this study deals with the much-neglected topic of secondary trauma, by focusing on the following aspects of or conditions associated with violent crime and the secondary victim: cognitive, emotional and relational effects the experience of trauma, loss, vulnerability, depression and acute stress. It reveals that, depending on the severity of the incident, its consequences for the partner of the victim may range from post-traumatic stress to acute stress or secondary traumatic stress. From the similar results returned for primary and secondary victims, it is apparent that in the future, both victim and supporter should have their needs addressed with equal emphasis. / Educational Studies / M.Ed. (Specialisation in Guidance and Councelling)

The research project investigated whether victims of housebreaking experienced motivational, cognitive and emotional deficits central to the Learned Helplessness phenomenon. In keeping with the Reformulated Learned Helplessness theory the attributional style of victims, were also assessed. The State-Trait Inventory developed by Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg and Jacobs was administered to measure the anxiety levels of victims. Sub-goals served as illustration for the learned helplessness phenomenon. Three- hundred victims, using probability sampling techniques, were interviewed by means of an interview schedule. Support was found for cognitive and some motivational deficits and a common range of emotions experienced by victims. The majority of victims exhibited a global attnbutional style. Burglary victims did not show appreciably higher trait and state scores means, except for females in the 19-39 age group, when compared to a psychological norm. Environmental factors did play a role in rendering homes vulnerable. Recommendations addressing the fear of housebreaking were made at a therapeutic and practical level. / Sociology / M.A. (Criminology)

Violent cnme is among the most prominent distinguishing characteristics of South African society, it has a severely traumatising effect on the populations concerned. Based on research :findings and existing literature, this study explores traumatic effects of violent crime on the most intimate associate of the victim (the partner). Accordingly, this study deals with the much-neglected topic of secondary trauma, by focusing on the following aspects of or conditions associated with violent crime and the secondary victim: cognitive, emotional and relational effects the experience of trauma, loss, vulnerability, depression and acute stress. It reveals that, depending on the severity of the incident, its consequences for the partner of the victim may range from post-traumatic stress to acute stress or secondary traumatic stress. From the similar results returned for primary and secondary victims, it is apparent that in the future, both victim and supporter should have their needs addressed with equal emphasis. / Educational Studies / M.Ed. (Specialisation in Guidance and Councelling)

The research project investigated whether victims of housebreaking experienced motivational, cognitive and emotional deficits central to the Learned Helplessness phenomenon. In keeping with the Reformulated Learned Helplessness theory the attributional style of victims, were also assessed. The State-Trait Inventory developed by Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg and Jacobs was administered to measure the anxiety levels of victims. Sub-goals served as illustration for the learned helplessness phenomenon. Three- hundred victims, using probability sampling techniques, were interviewed by means of an interview schedule. Support was found for cognitive and some motivational deficits and a common range of emotions experienced by victims. The majority of victims exhibited a global attnbutional style. Burglary victims did not show appreciably higher trait and state scores means, except for females in the 19-39 age group, when compared to a psychological norm. Environmental factors did play a role in rendering homes vulnerable. Recommendations addressing the fear of housebreaking were made at a therapeutic and practical level. / Sociology / M.A. (Criminology)

The creation of sustainable and safe environments nowadays moves more and more into focus for urban planners and architects. Cities should be designed in a way to contribute to social cohesion, shaping an inclusive environment and focusing on the wellbeing of its citizens. Nevertheless, these processes can be undermined by public crime and the fear of crime, which is not only affecting aspects of personal safety but also affecting the people’s behaviour. Reasons why criminality occurs are manifold, impacted by a dynamic set of socioeconomic, demographic, personal but also environmental aspects. In recent years especially the impact of factors related to urban and environmental design respectively planning received rising attention in the field of crime prevention. However, the implementation of strategies regarding ‘crime prevention through environmental design’ or ‘designing out crime’ is still in its early stage in Sweden.   This study aims to investigate spatial and temporal patterns of public crime for the case of Umeå in order to identify potential risk areas, which could receive particular attention regarding crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED). In this sense a GIS based spatial analysis had the aim to detect statistically significant hotspots of crime and furthermore to assess the development of these hotspots over time. In order to understand the nature of public crime and criminal behaviour in Umeå in a more holistic way, also temporal aspects regarding the occurrence of crime were analysed. One particularly vulnerable neighbourhood was examined with a qualitative field observation regarding the principles of crime prevention through environmental design in order to assess in which way the built environment is designed and suited to prevent and deter criminality.   Umeå displays rather clear patterns of higher crime activity, assigned to seasonal, weakly and daily periods, which are connected to higher activity in the public space. Also from a spatial perspective certain patterns are detectable with a higher vulnerability for crime at spots which generate higher activity such as shopping areas or neighbourhoods with nightlife and transport hub functions, and in general neighbourhoods with a higher building density. The neighbourhood of Ålidhem displayed thereby a high concentration of criminality, marked as a constant or even intensifying hotspot for the entire period of investigation. The results of the field observation regarding principles of CPTED are especially indicating a lack of maintenance and furthermore the street and building layout is contributing to disorientation. On the other hand, the area is in most cases well equipped for natural surveillance and provides a high amount of locations for leisure and recreation in order strengthen social cohesion.

In Feldstudien konnte häufig mittels der Low–Cost Hypothese gezeigt werden, dass normatives Verhalten von den dafür aufzuwendenden Kosten abhängt. Doch hängt die Durchsetzung einer Norm ebenfalls von der Höhe der Kosten ab? Die Gültigkeit der Low – Cost Hypothese bei diesen kollektiven Gütern zweiter Ordnung ist bislang im Feld wenig erforscht. In unserer Studie wird die Durchsetzung sozialer Normen anhand nachbarschaftlicher Kontrollen analysiert. Es werden Daten einer postalischen Befragung von 631 Personen in Leipzig aus dem Jahr 2001 ausgewertet: Der Zusammenhang zwischen der Befürwortung sozialer Kontrollen und der Bereitschaft, soziale Kontrollen tatsächlich an sich zu erdulden, wird mit steigenden Kosten der zu erduldenden Kontrollhandlungen schwächer. Zudem lässt sich die Logik der Low – Cost Hypothese auf andere soziologische Konstrukte übertragen: Die Wirkung von Kriminalitätsfurcht und Autoritarismus ist umso weniger handlungsrelevant, je höher die Kosten der zu erduldenden Kontrollhandlungen sind. Diese Befunde demonstrieren die Gültigkeit der Low–Cost Hypothese im Zusammenhang mit kollektiven Gütern zweiter Ordnung.:Einleitung; Die Übertragung der Low – Cost Hypothese auf die Durchsetzung sozialer Normen; Datenbasis und Operationalisierung; Schlussfolgerung und Ausblick / In field studies, there is evidence that the occurrence of normative behaviour is dependent on its costs. This effect is known as the low cost hypothesis. However, is the enforcement of social norms as well dependent on its costs? So far, there has been little research on the validity of the low – cost hypothesis for so called second order collective goods. In our work, the enforcement of social norms is studied by means of analyzing social control in neighbourhoods. We use data of a mail survey conducted in 2001 in Leipzig, Germany, with 631 respondents: Correlations between approval of social control and willingness to tolerate social control personally decrease with increasing costs to tolerate these control activities. Additionally, the logic of low – cost is transferable to other sociological constructs: The effect of fear of crime and authoritarianism is the less relevant for tolerating social control activities, the higher the costs for these control activities. These empirical findings confirm the low cost hypothesis for the production of second order collective goods.:Einleitung; Die Übertragung der Low – Cost Hypothese auf die Durchsetzung sozialer Normen; Datenbasis und Operationalisierung; Schlussfolgerung und Ausblick