Mainstream portrayals of women in research, politics, and media during armed conflict often limit them to the roles of victims or, at best, peacemakers, disregarding their diverse and active participation. This study challenges such binary portrayals by investigating the involvement of women in armed conflict, particularly why some regions experience high levels of female combatants while others do not. It posits that close proximity to conflict enhances women's opportunities and willingness to engage in combat, leading to an increase in the fraction of female combatants relative to men. Using a comparative case study design, this research analyzes regions in southeast Ukraine based on their proximity to the Donbas conflict zone from 2014 to 2018. The empirical findings support the hypothesis, indicating that greater proximity to conflict zones increases the likelihood of female combatants. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of women's roles in armed conflicts and offer valuable insights for the field of peace and conflict studies by shedding light on the disruption of societalgender roles during times of conflict, thus revealing broader societal impacts of violence and war.

Die begriffliche Unterscheidung von Geschlecht als einerseits biologischem Faktum (Sex) sowie anderseits als Produkt kultureller und sozialer Prozesse (Gender) geht auf Arbeiten zur Transsexualität in den sechziger Jahren zurück. Der feministische Diskurs griff die Unterscheidung auf und verstand sie in einem antibiologistischen Sinne. Die Sex-Gender-Unterscheidung impliziert jedoch auch die unhaltbare Annahme, dass es ein biologisches Substrat der Geschlechterdifferenz gäbe, welches kulturellen Unterscheidungen stets vorgängig wäre (latenter Biologismus). Wissenschaftstheoretische Arbeiten verweisen demgegenüber darauf, dass Natur stets durch die Brille der Kultur gesehen wird.

本篇論文研究主要以正式女性公務人員為對象，並採用質化研究的深入訪談法，總共有十五位女性公務人員接受訪問；另外，本篇論文引用相關的理論來觀察女性公務人員的實際生活情況。十五位女性公務人員的家庭發展階段分成未婚、已婚無子女、已婚懷孕初期、已婚育有學齡前兒童、已婚育有青少年子女、以及已婚育有成年子女等等家庭類型。 本篇論文的研究發現有下列幾點： 一、因為性別角色期待而選擇進入公務人員體制 女性因為性別角色期待選擇進入公務人員體制中。女性公務人員為了扮演生育、照顧的家庭角色；以及社會普遍認為女性適合從事公務人員；在婚姻市場裡面，女性公務人員更成為理想結婚對象。因此，女性選擇進入公務人員體制的意願提高。 二、公務人員體制具有科層制特性 公務人員體制中的科層體制強調「固定職掌」、「依法行政」、「層級節制」，並且形成特定的官僚運作方式；整個組織運作強調「客觀」、「理性」、「陽剛性質」。女性在這樣的官僚運作底下，因為其性別而被標示出來，因為整個科層組織是由男性設計與主導，女性則被看成性別化的行動者（sexualized actors）；同時科層體制的反功能造成組織成員對組織產生疏離感，不過正因為這樣的反功能有利女性公務人員兼顧家庭生活，因此，女性公務人員在兼顧家庭的工作考量中以公務人員的工作內容配合度最高。在升遷的過程當中受到男性權威與性別角色刻板印象雙重影響，「玻璃天花板」效應明顯存在而女性公務人員也無法從工作中獲得滿足。 三、公務人員體制特殊的官場文化 公務人員體制要求「去個人化」、接受新的官僚人格，以及運用特殊的組織文化，其中最盛行的就是「關係」、「人情」。光具備工作能力表現是不夠的，公務人員還必須透過「關說」、「人事背景」才能獲得長官的賞識與提拔。整個組織的在上位者多數都是男性，男性有其特殊的人際關係互動，女性公務人員必須同時去性別化與接受男性的組織網絡之後，才有可能獲得晉升的機會。 四、女性公務人員因為家庭與工作出現精疲力盡 大部分已婚的女性公務人員仍然扮演「女主內」的角色，也就是說踏進門板之後的領域全歸為女性的責任，因此，只能用「心力交瘁」的字眼來形容女性公務人員的處境，唯一值得慶幸的是，女性公務人員會尋求社會資源來解決工作與家庭兩者間的衝突。 五、女性公務人員既主動創造又被動接受性別角色期待 根據本篇論文觀察與訪談結果，女性在某種情境底下才會既主動創造又被動接受性別角色期待。那就是只有在家庭因素考量出現時，女性才會主動創造與被對接受既予的性別角色期待。為了逃避這種左右為難的窘境，女性就必須建立自主性，可是這種自主性也是在既有社會價值框架下，並不是完全的自由。因此，我認為唯有去除傳統將女性與家庭連結在一起的社會價值，進而建立兩性平等的關係。 / This paper aims mainly at qualified female civil servants, employs the qualitative method by which fifteen women are interviewed, and takes also on the relevant theories to observe their actual life experiences. The family life cycle of them is divided as following: single, married without children, pregnant, married with preschool ones, married with teenagers, and married with adult children. In this paper I discover the facts that follows: 1. In accordance with the expectation for gender role, women choose to be civil servants. In order to play well role on caring and childbearing in family life, on account of the common social assumption that women are suitable for the work of civil servants, and owing to the favor in the selection of marriage partner, women thus are willing to run for this status. 2. Public institution is characteristic of bureaucracy. The working of civil service emphasizes on the fixed working contents, administrating by law, and obviously hierarchizing in levels, so this institution develops the bureaucratic feature. Under the emphases of the whole institution on the rationality, objectivity and masculinity wrought by men, women are labeled as sexualized actors. In this case, the bureaucracy produces the anti-function which on the one hand results in the alienation of the member in the organization and which on the other hand is good for women to take care of their family. In the process of promotion, the influences of male authority and gender stereotype on women forms the glass ceiling effect that defers women from the satisfaction with their works. 3. The special bureaucratic culture in public institution. In this institution the member is required to be depersonalized, to accept a new bureaucratic trait and to implement the special organizational culture that is fashioned with human relationship and influence. Most of the higher officials are men who possess the different network of human relations from women, women must desexualize themselves to receive bureaucratic culture dominated by men for the opportunity of promotion. 4. The exhaustion of female civil servants in family and work. A great number of married female civil servants simultaneously play the role of housewives--that is to say, women are responsible for all the things indoors. Fortunately, women, when facing this dilemma, would by the capacity of their positioning search for the social support so that they solve the confrontations between family and work. 5. Female civil servants either positively create or negatively accept the expectation for gender role. The choice of whether to create or accept the expected gender role for women civil servants depends on certain "circumstances." That is, only when for family's sake women civil servants are forced to definitely both create and accept such given gender role. To escape this dilemma, they try to establish a kind of autonomy--neither to create nor to accept the "given" namely, to slip off the bondage of the family. However, this sort of "autonomy" is limited in the framework of social value, far from complete freedom. Consequently, I think all we have to do is change the social value of setting the bondage between women and family and strive for the equality of both sexes.

在國小女性教師日益增加以社會上生理和心理性別的一致性日漸分歧的趨勢下，教師在生理與心理性別上的差異，是否影響學生成長與學習？如何在現況中了解教師性別角色與性別對學的影響，如何輪換不同性別教師以減少對學生可能產生的影響，值得吾人重視。因此，本研究乃從男女教師在教學效能、教學態度的差異上著手，而以性別角色理論為基礎，探討男女教師性別角色與學生學校適應、學業成就之關係。以期做為師範院校師資養成教育以及國小安排及輪換教師之主要參考。 為達成研究目的，本研究採二部份進行，第一部份採問卷調查法，以分層叢集取樣，選取桃竹苗四縣市國小男女教師256人（男119；女137），以探討教師性別角色、性別與教學態度、教學效能之關係；第二部份以問卷調查為主，兼及實驗法優點，以分層立意取樣選取第一部份樣本中，新竹縣市四至六年級七十九個班級的師生為研究對象，計男學生1245人，女學生1187人，以探討男女教師性別角色與學生學校適應、學業成就之關係。 根據研究結果的分析與討論，歸納如下結論： 一、教師性別與性別化特質對學生學校適應與學業成就均有直接影響，唯影響不大，重要的教師在學生心目中角色與形象。 二、學生學業成就主要受其學校適應之影響，而學校適應良窳又取決於學生對教師形象的評定。學生認為級任教師是其心目中的好老師，則其學校生活愉快，適應良好，學業表現亦優異。反言之，學生學業成就上的差異來自其不同的學校適應，以及對老師形象不同評價。 建議： 一、小學教育方面 （一）擴展教師的性別化角色 （二）加強學校輔導工作，協助學生適應學校以能全心向學 （三）教師應重視學生需求與感受，並扮演學生心目中的好老師 （四）教師多關心智商、社經地位較低之學生，並予以適切輔導 （五）輪換不同性別級任教師時，宜對學生多加關懷並予以定向輔導 （六）宜縮小學校規模為中小型學校以利學生適應學校 二、師範教育方面 （一）教導學生扮演兩性化角色 （二）增進師範生的輔導知能

本研究旨在探討是否是因女性意識的抬頭，導致台灣生育率下降，還是誠如Peter McDonald(2000)所言，由於婦女運動，導致社會允許女性在教育與就業上擁有等同於男性的機會，其稱之為個人取向制度上的性別平等，但在家庭方面，卻仍是維持男主外、女主內的傳統男性養家者模式思考，認為女性為家庭中的顧老者、護幼者，其稱之為家庭取向制度上的性別不平等，以致於女性要面對家庭照顧與工作壓力的雙重負擔，但這樣的現象並不會對女性的理想子女數造成影響，卻會使實際生育數下降；研究工具為2004年國民健康局「家庭與生育力調查」第九次調查已婚問卷資料，有效樣本數為2,865人。 研究結果發現，擁有較平等的性別角色態度之已婚育齡婦女，的確有較低的理想子女數與實際生育數，但依照描述性統計狀況來看，我國婦女並非不想生育，而是降低了自己的理想子女數與實際生育數；而我國家庭內家務分工不均的狀況，雖不符合研究者假設家務分工平等的女性有較高的實際生育數，但是深入探討發現，我國社會現況確實符合Peter McDonald(2000)所說，因為女性意識覺醒，促使社會處理個人在教育與就業上的制度性別平等，但我國社會家庭制度仍是維持傳統男性養家者模式，要求女性負擔家庭中絕大部分家務工作，欠缺顧老、護幼之協調工作與家庭照顧政策，以至於女性無法負擔工作與家庭衝突，因而降低了自己的生育數。 最後，研究者依研究發現嘗試對政府部門提出相關建議，供未來家庭政策與實務參考。 / The purpose of this study is to know the reason for fertility decline of the married women aged in 20-49 years in Taiwan. Whether it is due to the rise of feminist consciousness, or as the theory Peter McDonald (2000) discussed. Peter McDonald thinks that since women’s movement are springing up, the society allows women to have the same opportunities like men in education and employment. He called it as gender equal in individual-oriented institutions. But in fact, it is still maintaining the traditional male breadwinner model in the family. Female still plays the main role to take care children and elders. He called it as gender inequity in family-oriented institutions. Such institutions lead to fertility decline. The data used for this study were from 2004“the ninth investigation of family and fertility ability in Taiwan ”held by the research Institute of Bureau of health promotion department of health, Taiwan R.O.C. (sample size=2865). The main finding of this study is to prove that the married women in childbearing age, who has more egalitarian gender role attitude, will have lower ideal number of children and the actual number of births. Based on the general statistic condition in Taiwan, the situation are similar to Peter McDonald's thought. But there is something different, the unequal division housework is still within the family, which is not just like the researcher’s assumption: an equal division of housework women have a higher actual number of births. Despite the variable, the reason of fertility decline in Taiwan still confirms Peter McDonald’s theory. The awakening of women’s consciousness accelerate gender equal in individual-oriented and family-oriented institutions. But still, the traditional model asked women to undertake most parts of housework. The deficient in public welfare and family care policy will make female not be able to get the balance between work and family. Such institutions caused fertility decline in Taiwan. Finally, according to the study result, there are several suggestions which can be contributed to future policy and practical advice of family reference for government.

本研究旨在探討不同年代夫妻權力關係之影響因素及改變情形。研究者採用家庭決策模式為指標，以「子女管教及教養」、「家用支出分配」、「購買高價家庭用品」作為重要的測量變項。根據資源論、交換論以及文化規範理論觀點，討論之焦點包括：1.夫妻資源是否影響夫妻權力關係之運作？2.兩性的性別角色態度是否影響夫妻權力關係之運作？並比較兩個年度之差異。 研究者利用「台灣地區社會變遷基本調查」第三期第二次家庭組（1996年）及第五期第二次（2006年）家庭組之研究問卷資料進行分析。研究結果發現： 1. 家庭決策模式之樣貌：三項家庭決策大多以「共同決定」為主要之模式。然在性別比例及兩個年度比例分配上仍有些微差異。 2. 資源差異對夫妻權力關係之影響：已婚兩性之資源差異對家庭決策有部份達到顯著。整體來說，擁有較高資源者，會有助於「決策權力」的增加。 3. 性別角色態度對夫妻權力關係之影響：分析檢定結果顯示性別角色態度對於家庭決策模式之作用獲得證實。性別角色態度較傳統者，家庭決策會傾向傳統父權之思維。反之，態度越現代者，家庭決策模式會傾向較平權之模式。 4. 1996年及2006年影響夫妻權力關係因素之轉變：夫妻資源之高低以及性別角色態度在兩個年度對家庭決策模式皆有重要的影響力。最大的差異在於2006年女性負責更多的子女管教及教養之決策權，特別反應在高等教育成程度者。在態度方面1996年已婚兩性之態度皆有其影響性，但2006年只有女性的態度對家庭決策模式有作用。 最後根據研究結論提出建議，研究者認為除了在鉅視層面持續耕耘兩性平權觀念推廣及宣導外，在職場上真正落實兩性工作平等法保障婦女就業實為重要。 / The purpose of this research is to understand the power relationship between husbands and wives, including the factors and the transition during 1996-2006. Researcher adopts family decision-making as an important index. “Children disciplining”, “family expenditure”, and “buying expensive house wares” are the measuring variables. Base on the Resources Theory, the Exchange Theory, and the Theory of Resources in Cultural Context, the main questions of this research are: 1. Do the resources between husbands and wives influence their power relationships? 2. Do the attitude of gender role effects the power relationships of husbands and wives? 3. Is there any transition from 1996 to 2006? The results are as follows.1.Most proportions in 3 items of family decision-making are the Common decision-making model. 2. The resources difference between married both sexes are significant to the family decision-making. The more resources one has, the more power in making decision one has. 3. The attitude of gender role effect the family decision-making. The sex role attitude is more traditional, the family decision-making will favor thought of the traditional patriarchy. Otherwise, the attitude is more modern, the family decision model will favor compares pattern of the equal rights. 4. Both the resources difference and the attitude of gender role are important factors in 1996 and 2006.Compair with 1996, the high level of education female have more power in “Children disciplining” decision-making, and female’s attitude of gender role are more important to family decision-making in 2006. According to the research conclusion, researcher puts forward the suggestions.

MGS / Institute for Gender and Youth Studies

La littérature suppose implicitement l'existence d'un déterminisme biologique pour expliquer les différences entre les hommes et les femmes entrepreneurs. Par l'analyse des représentations de la performance, nous questionnons les stéréotypes sexués en mobilisant les notions de sexe (homme/femme) et de genre (féminité/masculinité) : le sexe est-il une variable pertinente pour expliquer les différences hommes/femmes en matière de représentation de la performance d'entreprise ?Trois études quantitatives utilisant une ANOVA et des t-Test ont analysé les données issues de 244 entrepreneurs. Une étude qualitative auprès de 6 entrepreneurs a permis de modéliser les représentations de la performance. Nous montrons que les différences de représentations de la performance d'entreprise ne sont expliquées ni par les catégories de sexe (Homme et Femme), ni par celles du genre (Masculin, Féminin, Androgyne, Indifférencié) définies par le Bem Sex Role Inventory. Nous confirmons également que les représentations collectives de la performance ont évolué et vont bien au-delà de la simple quête de profit, et sont plus rattachées à des valeurs sociales actuelles. / Literature tends to assume implicitly the existence of a biological determinism to explain the differences between men and women entrepreneurs. Our aim was to study the representations of business performance based on the notion of sex (biological sex: female & male), and gender (the social sex: feminity & masculinity). Could masculinity and/or femininity reveal differences in representing business performance between men and women entrepreneurs? Three quantitative studies, based on ANOVA and t-Test, were used to analyze data collected by questionnaire from 244 entrepreneurs. A qualitative study was used to model data collected during individual interview of six entrepreneurs.We found that differences in representing business performance cannot be revealed neither by the distinction of category of sex (male / female), nor by gender categories (Male, Female, Androgynous, Undifferentiated) as defined by the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Also, we confirm that collective representations of the performance by the entrepreneurs have evolved and go well beyond the simple pursuit of economic profit, and can be more closely related to current social values.

El presente trabajo de investigación consta de la comparación del rol que jugaron los discursos públicos sobre género y violencia que ayudaron en la construcción de las imágenes mediáticas en los comentarios del Facebook de Guillermo Castañeda y en el de Daniella Pflucker entorno a su relación por un supuesto caso de violación en el 2018. En las siguientes páginas, se mostrará cuál es el rol que cumplen, en la actualidad, las redes sociales en la construcción de juicios mediáticos y cómo se perpetúan los roles de género y violencia. Se observará y analizará los comentarios de cada una de las publicaciones implicadas y cómo estos ayudaron a formar la construcción de sus imágenes mediáticas. Este trabajo parte con la hipótesis de que los discursos públicos de género y violencia ayudaron en la construcción de las imágenes mediáticas creadas en los comentarios de la publicación fueron principalmente los comentarios con estereotipos y roles de género. Esta premisa pasará a ser justificada mediante un análisis, donde se abarca una muestra de estudios de 15 comentarios por cada publicación, en los que se ponen bajo la lupa conceptos como: la mención directa al personaje opuesto, los likes o reacciones y conceptos clave como censura, moral y consecuencias. / This research work consists of comparing the role played by public discourses on gender and violence that helped in the construction of media images in the comments of Guillermo Castaneda’s and Daniella Plucker’s Facebook about their relationship for a supposed rape case in 2018. In the following pages, will show the role that social media currently plays in the construction of media judgments and how gender and violence roles are perpetuated. The comments of each of the publications involved will be observed and analyzed and how these helped shape the construction of their media images. This work is based on the hypothesis that public discourses of gender and violence speeches helped build the media images created in the comments of the publication were mainly comments with gender stereotypes and roles. This premise will be justified by an analysis, which encompasses a sample of studies of 15 comments for each publication, in which concepts such as: direct mention of the opposite character, likes or reactions and key concepts such as censorship, morality and consequences are placed under the magnifying glass. / Trabajo de investigación

The thesis The Gender Construction of the Role of Male Teachers in Kindergarten from the Perspective of Pedagogical Professionals deals with gender construction of the role of male teachers in kindergartens, from the perspective of the male teachers themselves and from the perspective of female teachers and female directors who teach with male teachers in kindergartens. For this purpose I conducted nonparticipant observation, which was complemented by semistructured interviews. The thesis consists of two parts - theoretical and empirical part. Theoretical part deals with fundamental concepts which are related to the research question and empirical part consists of methodical procedures and analysis of interviews with male teachers, female teachers and female directors as well as analysis of fieldnotes from nonparticipant observation. Key words: gender role construction, male teachers, pedagogical professionals, educators, kindergarten, early childhood education, nonparticipant observation, semistructured interviews