This thesis aims at finding the reasons for the genocide in Rwanda, not only in the history of the country, but also the reason why the international institutions failed to prevent it. The thesis begins with a historical background of Rwanda where key actors in the conflict are presented and in the end presents an explanatory model which is based upon the facts gathered during the thesis. The model aims at explaining why the genocide happened and it is built up of layers. These layers have their background in Rwanda’s history and also international institutions, such as the UN. The layers of importance which led to the genocide are: Rwanda’s colonial past, the Arusha Accords and the mandate of UNAMIR (failure of the United Nations), a uni-polar world, increasing poverty, and the assassination of President Habyarimana. There were few available strategies in the standard arsenal of international political means that could have been used to stop the genocide, both before it broke out, but especially after it had begun. / Uppsatsen ämnar hitta de bakomliggande orsaker till folkmordet, inte bara i Rwandas historia men också varför internationella instutitioner, så som FN, inte bidrog till att förhindra folkmorden. I det fortlöpande arbetet med uppsatsen har en modell utvecklats vilken ämnar förklara vad som hände, och som är byggd på den information som framkommit under arbetets gång. Modellen bygger på ett flertal lager av händelser. Dessa lager bygger på händelser som inte bara rör Rwandas historia utan också på vad de internationella institutionerna bidrog med i konflikten. De identifierade lagren som ligger till grund för konflikten är Rwandas koloniala bakgrund, Arusha Accords och mandatet för UNAMIR, en unipolär värld, ökande fattigdom samt mordet på President Habyarimana. Det fanns få tillgängliga politiska strategier som kunde ha använts för att stoppa folkmordet.

Esta tese analisa os processos de transições à democracia e os debates referentes à luta pela educação sobre/para os direitos humanos, em três países distintos (Argentina, Paraguai e Uruguai). Utilizando-se de uma metodologia transnacional, na qual o pano de fundo é o fluxo de conhecimento sobre violações cometidas pelos Estados, durante as ditaduras destes países, conectadas pelo Sistema Condor, ela procura delinear a construção de uma identidade conformada pelo território imaginado do Río de la Plata. Esta identidade se baseia nas memórias sobre a violência e nas lutas pela consolidação das memórias das vítimas em um espaço público, sob a pretensão da construção de conhecimento para a não repetição de histórias de catástrofes. Desta forma, as discussões trabalhadas abrangem debates sobre os direitos humanos de níveis locais, regionais e globais, em diferentes contextos. E elas trazem para o debate rio-platense dois conceitos essenciais dentro dos direitos humanos, que marcam a identidade regional: a prática social genocida e o desaparecimento forçado. / This thesis analyzes the processes of transitions to democracy and the debates concerning the struggle for education about/for human rights in three different countries (Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay). Using a transnational methodology, in which the background is the movement of knowledge about violations committed by the states, during the dictatorships of these countries, connected by the Condor System, it seeks to delineate the construction of an identity conformed by the imagined territory of the River Plate. This identity is based on memories of violence and struggles to consolidate the victims memories in a public space, under the pretense of building knowledge for non-repetition of catastrophic stories. In this way, the discussions include human rights debates at local, regional and global levels in different contexts. And they bring to the River Plate debates two essential concepts within human rights that mark the regional identity: genocidal social practice and forced disappearance.

A presente dissertação de mestrado analisa a atuação do Tribunal Penal Internacional para Ruanda, corte com sede na Tanzânia, criada sob os auspícios da ONU e encarregada de processar as pessoas responsáveis por sérias violações ao Direito Internacional Humanitário cometidas durante o genocídio da população tutsi organizado por membros do governo e do exército de Ruanda em 1994, e que vitimou mais de 800.000 civis. Estuda-se a evolução do Direito Internacional Penal ao longo do século XX até a criação do Tribunal e a história e a organização política de Ruanda até a eclosão da guerra civil e do genocídio. Apresenta-se a estrutura, a competência e a dinâmica dos julgamentos, promove-se o estudo de quatro casos paradigmáticos julgados, e verificam-se os resultados concretos alcançados pelo Tribunal para impedir a impunidade, apontando este órgão judicial como importante precursor do Tribunal Penal Internacional criado pelo Estatuto de Roma em 1998. O trabalho também ambiciona perpetuar a lembrança de um dos maiores massacres da história, comparável ao próprio Holocausto, e o tratamento dado pelo Direito e pela comunidade internacional ao episódio / This dissertation examines the performance of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Tanzania-based court, created under the auspices of the UN, in charge of prosecuting people responsible for serious violations of International Humanitarian Law committed during the genocide of the Tutsi population, organized by members of the government and the army of Rwanda in 1994, which killed over 800,000 civilians. It is studied the evolution of International Criminal Law over the twentieth century until the establishment of the Court, and also the history and the political organization in Rwanda until the outbreak of civil war and genocide. This dissertation presents the structure, competence and dynamics of the trials, promotes the study of four paradigmatic cases tried, and verifies the concrete results achieved by the Court to prevent impunity, pointing this judicial body as an important forerunner of the International Criminal Court created by the Rome Statute in 1998. The study also aspires to perpetuate the memory of one of the greatest massacres in history, comparable to the Holocaust itself, and treatment given by the law and by the international community to the episode

Based on Hobsbawm’s notion of “invented traditions,” this thesis argues that the Serbian warrior tradition, the hajduk, was formalised from the folk oral epic tradition into official state practices. Using reports from the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, military histories of Yugoslavia’s Second World War, and case files from the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), this thesis shows how the hajduk epics were used to articulate war programs and formations, to construct perpetrator and victim identities, and to help encourage and justify the levels of violence during the Yugoslav wars of succession, 1991-1995. The thesis shows how the formalising of the invented hajduk tradition made the epics an important part of political and military mobilisation for at least the last two centuries. During Serbia’s modernisation campaign in the nineteenth century, the epic hajduk traditions were codified by Serbian intellectuals and fashioned into national stories of heroism. While cleansing territories of undesirable populations during the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, the hajduks were portrayed in the tradition of nation builders by the Kingdom of Serbia. The hajduk tradition was also mobilised as Nazi Germany invaded Yugoslavia in 1941, with both Draža Mihailović’s Četniks and Tito’s Partisans appropriating the historic guerrilla tradition. During the “re-traditionalisation” period under Slobodan Milošević in the 1980s, the invented hajduk tradition was again mobilised in the service of war. As Bosnian Muslim bodies were flung from the Mehmed Sokolović Bridge in Višegrad in 1992, the Serbian perpetrators dreamed of themselves as avenging hajduks thus justifying a modern ethnic cleansing. / Graduate

Cette recherche prend comme point de départ la lecture de textes émanant de deux aires socio-culturelles différentes : le Rwanda et le Guatemala. Issus de narrations de femmes, publiés à partir des années 1980, ils font acte de témoignage d’un événement : le génocide des Tutsis au Rwanda et les violences de masse au Guatemala.Les récits sont mis à l’épreuve du genre littéraire et du genre comme construction socio-culturelle.Le volume aborde, pour commencer, les aspects historico-esthétiques de la représentation littéraire des violences du XXe siècle en Europe et aux Amériques. Il reconstitue l’histoire et les enjeux de la problématique contemporaine du témoignage. Mais encore, à travers l’analyse des différentes éditions des témoignages de Rigoberta Menchú et de Yolande Mukagasana, les dualités communes vrai/faux, fiction/réalité sont questionnées au sein du régime discursif du témoignage.Prenant appui sur la conception dynamique de la lectureécriture 1 pour appréhender l’objet discursif – paratexte, texte et leurs instances symboliques – l’étude s’attache à dévoiler les mécanismes propres aux processus de signification au travers de possibles interprétations.1 Milagros Ezquerro, Leerescribir., México; Paris, Rilma 2!: ADEHL, 2008 / This study takes as its starting point the close reading of texts from two different socio-cultural areas: Rwanda and Guatemala. These female narratives published from the 1980s onwards bear witness to particular events: the Tutsi genocide in Rwanda and mass violence in Guatemala.Stories are examined through the prism of the literary genres of testimonio and témoignage, as well as through an understanding of gender as a socio-cultural construction.This research deals firstly with the historic and aesthetic aspects of literary representations of violence during the 20th century in Europe and the Americas. Itinvestigates the history of and contemporary concerns about ‘eye witness accounts’* ‘testimony’. Further, through the study and analysis of various editions of the testimonies of Rigoberta Menchú and Yolande Mukagasana, it questions the common dualities of true/false, fiction/reality in the discursive regime of the testimony. Based on the dynamic conception of readingwriting1 to comprehend the discursive object – paratext, text and their symbolic representations – this research aims to unveil the mechanisms at work in the signification process through various interpretations.1 Milagros Ezquerro, Leerescribir., México; Paris, Rilma 2: ADEHL, 2008.

Folkmordet i Rwanda 1994 pågick under tre månader och är ett av de mest brutala folkmorden som har utförts under modern tid. Under dessa tre månader dödades ca 800 000 personer och takten i mördandet i Rwanda var fem gånger högre än vad dödandet var under Förintelsen. Till en början trodde omvärlden att det var ett inbördeskrig i Rwanda, vilket var en lögn. Den tidigare forskningen kring folkmordet i Rwanda 1994 bekräftar att FN som organisation misslyckades med att genomföra sitt uppdrag i Rwanda – men det visade sig också att vissa medlemsländer i FN kunde ha agerat annorlunda. Syftet med studien är att med utgångspunkt i FN-dokument undersöka hur Frankrike, Belgien och Rwanda agerade under och efter folkmordet i Rwanda 1994. Studiens källmaterial bestod av officiella FN-dokument som har publicerats i sin helhet i boken The United Nations and Rwanda 1993 – 1996 som FN utgav 1996. Studien präglades utav en kvalitativ textanalys, vilket syftar till att undersöka och analysera vad som faktiskt står i källmaterialet. Resultatet utav studien visade att både Frankrike och Belgiens ”icke-agerande” resulterade i att folkmordet i Rwanda inte stoppades tillräckligt fort. Både Frankrike och Belgien har en historia i Rwanda, vilket borde ha spelat en stor roll i hur de båda borde ha agerat. Resultatet visade också att Rwanda inte kunde sätta stopp för folkmordet själva eftersom Rwandas dåvarande regering var i konflikt med RPF. Det hade behövts ett agerande från FN, men speciellt från Frankrike och Belgien. Detta eftersom att de två medlemsländerna hade vetskap om bakomliggande orsaker till varför folkmordet utfördes under 1994.

Le statut du témoignage au sein du savoir est devenu un objet de questionnements, occasionnant des affrontements entre différentes disciplines à travers l’usage de paradigmes distincts. À partir du constat de l’«émergence» récente de la catégorie de «témoignage» dans le champ littéraire, cette thèse essaie de décrire son expansion et son extension au sein de plusieurs disciplines (droit, histoire, philosophie, critique et théorie littéraires) et d’examiner l’hypothèse selon laquelle son développement dans le champ des sciences humaines et sociales correspondrait en réalité à sa profonde mise en crise. Pour définir la notion de «témoignage» en littérature au XXe siècle, elle entreprend de poser les jalons d’une «histoire culturelle» des gestes testimoniaux et des notions de «témoignage», en vue de définir un objet théorique pertinent pour la théorie et la critique littéraires. Son but est de comprendre la manière dont le «témoignage» est devenu une catégorie à la fois nébuleuse et centrale de la vie culturelle en Occident, et de mettre en évidence la spécificité des formes testimoniales au XXe siècle. En introduisant les notions de «littérature testimoniale», d’«œuvre testimoniale» et de «création testimoniale» elle veut préciser la notion de «témoignage» et lui rendre sa complexité. Il s’agit donc de retrouver l’intelligence historique de la notion, afin d’en faire une catégorie pleinement opératoire pour le discours critique et de construire les fondements d’une «histoire culturelle du testimonial» qui retrace la rencontre entre l’art et le témoignage et explique l’émergence, au sein de la littérature, de cette forme nouvelle appelée «création testimoniale». / The status of testimony in knowledge has become a subject of questions, causing clashes between different disciplines through the use of distinct paradigms. From the observation of the recent "emergence" of the category of "testimony" in the literary field, this thesis attempts to describe its expansion and extension in several disciplines (law, history, philosophy, and critical literary theory), and examines the hypothesis that the progressive flooding of this concept in humanities and social sciences corresponds to a deep "crisis of witnessing". In an attempt to define the concept of "testimony" in literature as it appears during the twentieth century, this work aims at laying the foundations for a "cultural history" of testimonial gestures and notions of "testimony" in order to define an appropriate category for literary theory and criticism. Its goal is to understand how "testimony" became both a nebulous and central category in cultural life in the West, and highlights the specificity of testimonial forms in the twentieth century in the aftermath of the Holocaust, which must ultimately help clarify the concept of "testimony" and re-establish its complexity by introducing the notions of "testimonial literature", "testimonial work of art" and "testimonial creation". This thesis aims therefore primarily to recover the historical understanding of the concept, in order to make a fully operational category out of it for critical discourse, and to build the foundations of a "cultural history of testimonial gestures" which traces the encounter between art and testimony and explains the emergence, in literature, of a new form called "testimonial creation".

[pt] A história brasileira remete a insistentes acontecimentos, fatos e propostas de nação que evidenciam a rejeição da população negra, apesar de sua incorporação como pessoa subalterna. Há a existência de teorias que poderiam entrar em conflito, mas que se harmonizam na vivência cultural brasileira: assim existem posições teóricas que apontam para a eliminação do negro pela mistura, que convivem com as propostas eugênicas de purificação racial, como concordavam personalidades públicas como Monteiro Lobato e Roquete Pinto. No caso do Rio de Janeiro temos ainda convivido com práticas de extermínio que permanecem ainda nos dias de hoje, em especial nos bairros pobres da capital, favelas e Baixada Fluminense. No entanto a prática do extermínio é apenas o limite extremo de uma rejeição social e de um consentimento na eliminação de negros e pobres. Ao consentimento da eliminação relaciono a prática de genocídio consentido e realimentado no cotidiano das relações dos habitantes da metrópole. A morte é o resultado final das rejeições vividas pela população negra, muitas vezes também reprodutora e consentidora destas eliminações. Este trabalho, a partir de uma análise de bricolagem da metrópole, a partir de cenas capturadas do cotidiano, busca apresentar os impasses do cotidiano, entre o desejo e o afeto, que nos constituem como sujeitos, que acabam por dar sustentação à prática de genocídio negro em um clima de suposta harmonia racial. / [en] Brazilian history refers to persistent nation events, facts and proposals that evidence rejection to the black population, in spite of their incorporation as subordinate person. There are theories that could enter into conflict, but that harmonize in Brazilian cultural experience; thus there are theoretical positions that point to the elimination of negroes by mixing, which cohabit with eugenic proposals of racial purification, accepted by public personalities such as Monteiro Lobato and Roquete Pinto. In Rio de Janeiro, for instance, we have always cohabited with extermination practices that remain until the present times, especially in needy neighborhoods of the capital, in slums and at the Baixada Fluminense. However, the practice of extermination is only the extreme limit of a social rejection and of a consent to the elimination of negroes and paupers. I relate the practice of consented and refed genocide in day to day relations of inhabitants of the metropolis to the consent of elimination. Death is the final outcome of rejections lived by the negro population, often also reproducer and complaisant to these eliminations. This work, as of a bricolage analysis of the metropolis, as of scenes captured from the daily life, seeks presenting the deadlocks of daily life, between desire and affection, which constitute us as subjects, who end up supporting the practice of negro genocide in an atmosphere of supposed racial harmony.

Magister Legum - LLM / This paper analyses head of state immunity, a traditional rule of international law, in relation to the indictments by the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 2009 against the current Sudanese President Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir. It can be agreed that the doctrine of immunity in international law attempts to overcome the tension between the protection of human rights and the demands of state sovereignty. The statutes and decisions of international criminal courts make it clear that no immunity for international crimes shall be attached to heads of states or to senior government officials. However, the case against the Sudanese President, where the jurisdiction of the ICC was triggered by the UN Security Council‟s referral of the situation in Darfur to the Court, represents the first case where a serving head of state has, in fact, been indicted before the ICC. From this case, a number of legal issues have arisen; such as the questions where the ICC‟s jurisdiction over an incumbent head of state, not party to the ICC Statute, is justified, and the obligations upon ICC state parties to surrender such a head of state to the requesting international criminal court. This paper gives an analysis of these questions. / South Africa

Magister Legum - LLM / With regard to the establishment of legislative frameworks for investigating and prosecuting genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes at both national and international level, a number of pertinent issues come up concerning the Court which should have primacy to deal with a particular case. States have had a variety of options at their disposal, such as complementarity, exclusivity, subsidiarity and concurrent jurisdiction principles. As a rule, these experiences find their limits in the full criminalisation of conduct that is also punishable before the international criminal tribunals under international law, ignoring the fact that international law does not provide definite guidance with respect to a number of questions in relation to interaction between national and international jurisdiction vis-à-vis the ‘core crimes.’ In addition,a considerable increase in the content of international law and divergences in various legal systems in criminal law, both general and special, since the end of World War II, influence the effective prosecution of ‘core crimes.’ Against this background; this work is organised into five chapters. Chapter one gives a general introduction and background to the study. Chapter two will set out the present international legal framework governing the prosecution of ‘core crimes’ in national courts and a description of the relevant practice in various states. Chapter three will examine critically the jurisdiction and overlaps of the international courts and ad hoc tribunals,along with the corresponding models of international criminal justice of exclusivity, subsidiarity, complimentarity and concurrent jurisdiction. Chapter four seeks to discuss the optimal relationship based on interactions between national and international jurisdictions. It will also include the merits and limits of both jurisdictions, basing on existing precedents and legislation.Finally, Chapter five contains a summary of conclusions drawn from the whole study and winds up with a set of recommendations.