Apesar da disseminação das sementes comerciais híbridas e transgênicas, muitas famílias no Rio Grande do Sul resistem como guardiãs de sementes crioulas realizando a conservação da agrobiodiversidade. Elas compartilham conhecimentos, práticas e crenças, organizam-se em associações de guardiões de sementes crioulas, estabelecendo redes e parceiros, buscando soluções para suas próprias demandas, ainda que em condições estruturais desfavoráveis. Assim, diversos elementos sociais, políticos, econômicos e culturais são envolvidos nas práticas de conservação. A biologia da conservação, ao não reconhecer o protagonismo e o potencial de muitas práticas imersas no conhecimento tradicional dos agricultores para a conservação nos agroecossistemas, não é suficiente para compreender as práticas destes agricultores familiares camponeses. Sendo assim, as indagações que motivaram a construir esta tese são as seguintes: Como se dá a conservação das sementes crioulas realizada por agricultores guardiões? Que práticas estão envolvidas nesta conservação e como elas se vinculam a outros aspectos além do biológico? O objetivo geral deste trabalho é compreender como os agricultores realizam a conservação das variedades crioulas, que práticas estão envolvidas e como elas se relacionam com outros elementos, além dos aspectos ecológicos, para a conservação. Os objetivos específicos são: identificar experiências de guardiões de sementes crioulas no Rio Grande do Sul; compreender o que são as sementes crioulas para os agricultores guardiões; compreender o que é conservação para os agricultores guardiões; analisar quais as práticas dos agricultores que contribuem para a conservação das variedades crioulas e compreender quais os elementos que estão envolvidos e se relacionam com a prática da conservação. Para alcançar estes objetivos, a partir de uma abordagem etnográfica, optou-se pelo recorte de casos-tipo representativos de guardiões na associação de guardiões das sementes crioulas de Ibarama e da associação de guardiões da agrobiodiversidade de Tenente Portela. A metodologia consistiu na convivência com três famílias em Ibarama e quatro em Tenente Portela visitando-as entre abril de 2014 e agosto de 2016. Além destas, outras famílias foram entrevistadas ao longo do trabalho de campo. Foram realizadas observações das práticas cotidianas e das percepções dos agricultores, realizadas entrevistas com gravação de áudio e transcrição. Como ferramentas auxiliares utilizaram-se a construção do mapa da propriedade e a tomada de fotografias perguntando aos agricultores para que me indicassem até cinco coisas na propriedade que eram muito importantes para eles. Para seguir os atores tomei a Perspectiva Orientada ao Ator (LONG, 2001, 2007) e para analisar as práticas dos agricultores e suas relações com as sementes crioulas tomei como base os conceitos de corpus de conhecimentos, práxis camponesa e kosmos (mundo das crenças) de Toledo (1991, 1993, 2001, 2013). Para analisar as relações entre as práticas individuais dos agricultores e como elas se envolviam com as práticas de outros agricultores na família e nas associações de guardiões tomei como auxiliar a noção de prática social de Reckwitz, e Schatzki, Knorr-Cetina e Von Savigny. A partir da prática social pude compreender que as sementes crioulas são um elo que conecta outros elementos da vida social dos agricultores, que neste estudo foram categorizados em dimensões: socioecológica, socioeconômica, política e cultural, todas permeados pelo aspecto ético com as gerações passadas e as futuras, relacionadas com a reciprocidade. As sementes crioulas remetem principalmente à ancestralidade, ao que é antigo e puro, demonstrando o orgulho da identidade de guardiões. A conservação das variedades crioulas entendida como prática social expressa mais do que intenção, mas uma atividade prática embebida de subjetividades presentes no mundo das crenças dos agricultores. Os guardiões de sementes crioulas são atores potenciais e necessários para a conservação das variedades crioulas, elemento importante da agrobiodiversidade que mantém a família e propriedade rural. Discuto, por fim, a etnoconservação como uma perspectiva que complementa as debilidades da perspectiva da biologia da conservação para pensar a conservação nos agroecossistemas com potencialidades para a orientação de políticas públicas e projetos de conservação da agrobiodiversidade. / Despite the spread of hybrid and transgenic commercial seeds, many families in Rio Grande do Sul resist as landraces (creole seeds) guardians, maintaining the agrobiodiversity. They share knowledge, practices and beliefs, organize themselves into associations of landraces guardians, establishing networks and partners, seeking solutions to their own demands, even under unfavorable structural conditions. Thus, several social, political, economic and cultural elements are involved in conservation practices. Conservation biology, by not recognizing the role and potential of many practices immersed in farmers' traditional knowledge for conservation in agroecosystems, is not enough to understand the practices of these peasant family farmers. Therefore, the questions that motivated the construction of this thesis are the following: How is the conservation of the landraces carried out by guardian peasant family farmers? What practices are involved in this conservation and how are they linked to other aspects than biological? The general objective of this work is to understand how peasant family farmers perform the conservation of creole varieties, what practices are involved and how they relate to other elements, beyond ecological elements for conservation. The specific objectives are: to identify experiences of guardians of landraces in Rio Grande do Sul; understand what are the landraces for the guardian peasant family farmers; understand what conservation is for the guardian peasant family farmer; to analyze which practices of family farmers contribute to the conservation of creole varieties; and to understand what elements are involved in the practice of conservation and what elements relate to this practice. In order to achieve these objectives, from an ethnographic approach, I opted for the representative casetypes of guardians in the association of landraces guardians of Ibarama and the association of guardians of the agrobiodiversity of Tenente Portela. The methodology consisted of living with three families in Ibarama and four in Tenente Portela between April 2014 and August 2016. In addition, other families were interviewed throughout the field work. Observations were made on daily practices and farmers' perceptions. Interviews with recording and audio and transcription were carried out. As ancillary tools I used the construction of the property map and I took pictures asking farmers to point to five things on the property that were very important for them. To follow the actors was used the Perspective Oriented Actor (LONG, 2001, 2007) and to analyze peasant family farmers' practices and their relations with the creole seeds, I took as a base the concepts of corpus of knowledge, peasant praxis and Kosmos (world of beliefs) of Toledo (1991, 1993, 2001, 2013). In order to analyze the relationships between peasant family farmers' individual practices and how they engaged with the practices of other farmers in the family and guardian associations, I took the notion of social practice of Reckwitz, Schatzki, Knorr-Cetina, and Von Savigny. From the social practice I was able to understand that the creole seeds are a link that connects other elements of the social life of the farmers, who in this study were categorized in socioecological, socioeconomic, political and cultural dimensions, all permeated by the ethical aspect with past and future generations, related to reciprocity. Landraces refer mainly to ancestry, to what is ancient and pure, demonstrating the pride of the identity of guardians. The conservation of creole varieties understood as social practice expresses more than intention, but a practical activity steeped in subjectivities that are present in the world of farmers' beliefs. Farmer‟s guardians are potential and necessary conservation agents of landraces, because they are also an important element of agrobiodiversity that maintains family and rural property. Finally, ethnoconservation is discussed as a perspective of complementing the weaknesses of conservation biology to think about conservation in agroecosystems with potentialities for the orientation of public policies and projects for the conservation of agrobiodiversity. / A pesar de la propagación de semillas comerciales híbridas y transgénicas, muchas familias en Rio Grande do Sul se destacan como guardianes de las semillas criollas y nativas en que realizan la conservación de la agrobiodiversidad. Ellos comparten conocimientos, prácticas y creencias, organizándose en asociaciones de guardianes, estableciendo redes y colaboradores, para solucionar sus propios problemas, incluso cuando las condiciones estructurales son desfavorables. Así, elementos sociales, políticos, económicos y culturales están involucrados en prácticas de conservación. La biología de la conservación, al no reconocer el papel y el potencial de muchas prácticas inmersas en los conocimientos tradicionales de los agricultores para la conservación no es suficiente para entender las prácticas de los agricultores familiares. Por lo tanto, las preguntas que llevaron a construir esta tesis son las siguientes: ¿De qué manera los agricultores guardianes realizan la conservación de las semillas criollas? ¿Qué prácticas están involucradas en la conservación y como están relacionados con otros aspectos más allá de lo biológico? El objetivo general de este estudio es comprender cómo los agricultores realizan la conservación de las variedades criollas, que prácticas están involucradas y cómo ellas se relacionan con otros elementos, además de los aspectos ecológicos para la conservación. Los objetivos específicos son: identificar las experiencias de guardianes de las semillas criollas y nativas en Rio Grande do Sul; comprender qué son las semillas criollas y nativas para agricultores guardianes; comprender lo que es la conservación para los agricultores; analizar cuáles son las prácticas de los agricultores que contribuyen a la conservación de las variedades criollas y nativas y comprender qué elementos intervienen y se relacionan con la práctica de la conservación. Para lograr estos objetivos, desde un enfoque etnográfico, he optado por los recortes de casos-tipo representativos de guardianes en la asociación de guardianes de semillas criollas y nativas en Ibarama y asociación de guardianes de la agrobiodiversidad en Tenente Portela. La metodología consistió en vivir con tres familias Ibarama y cuatro en Tenente Portela visitándolas entre abril de 2014 y agosto del 2016. Además, otras familias fueron entrevistadas a lo largo del trabajo de campo. Fueron hechas observaciones de las prácticas de todos los días y de las percepciones de los agricultores, entrevistas con grabación y transcripción de audio. Como herramientas auxiliares he utilizado la construcción del mapa de la propiedad y la toma de fotografías preguntando a los agricultores cuáles son las cinco cosas más importantes para ellos en la propiedad. Para seguir los actores fue utilizada la Perspectiva Orientada al Actor (LONG, 2001, 2007) y para analizar las prácticas de los agricultores y sus relaciones con las semillas fueron utilizados conceptos como el corpus de conocimiento, la práxis campesina y el kosmos (mundo de las creencias) de Toledo (1991, 1993, 2001, 2013). Para analizar las relaciones entre las prácticas individuales de los agricultores y cómo ellas se relacionan con las prácticas de otros agricultores en la familia y en las asociaciones de guardianes he utilizado la noción auxiliar de la práctica social de los autores Reckwitz Schatzki, Knorr-Cetina y Von Savigny. A partir de la práctica social fue posible comprender que las semillas criollas y nativas son un eslabón que conecta a otros elementos de la vida social de los agricultores, que en este estudio se clasificaron en las dimensiones: socioecologica, socioeconómico, político y cultural, todo impregnado por el aspecto ético con las generaciones pasadas y con las futuras, relacionadas con la reciprocidad. Las semillas criollas y nativas se refieren principalmente a los ancestros, a lo que es antiguo y puro, lo que demuestra el orgullo del guardián de semillas como identidad. La conservación de las variedades criollas y nativas es una práctica social, es más que la expresión de una intención, sino una actividad práctica empapada de subjetividades presentes en el mundo de las creencias de los agricultores. Los guardianes de las semillas criollas y nativas son actores potenciales y necesarios para la conservación de las variedades criollas que son un elemento importante de la agrobiodiversidad que mantiene la familia y la finca. Se discute, finalmente, la etnoconservación como una perspectiva de complementación a las debilidades de la biología de la conservación para pensar la conservación en los agroecosistemas com potencialidades para la orientación de las políticas públicas y proyectos para la conservación de la agrobiodiversidad.

Det finns evidens som bekräftar fördelarna med att barn ägnar sig åt aktiva skoltransporter(AST). Trots detta har andelen barn som ägnar sig åt AST radikalt minskat under de senasteårtiondena. Vårdnadshavare är de som fattar beslut gällande sina barn, vilket skulle kunna spela en viktig roll när det kommer till AST, då deras attityder gentemot detta kan påverka huruvida barnet ägnar sig åt AST eller inte. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka de attityder vårdnadshavare till barn i årskurs 1–6, boende i ett arktiskt klimat har till aktiva skoltransporter. Studien utgick från ett befintligt projekt som ämnade att främja AST i en kommun i norra Sverige och utfördes med en kvalitativ metod och deskriptiv design för att besvara syftet. Datainsamlingen bestod av individuella intervjuer tillsammans med sex deltagare. Intervjuerna utfördes utifrån en förberedd intervjuguide och frågeställningarna utgick ifrån theory of planned behavior. En manifest analys av den insamlade datan gjordes genom fem steg, vilket resulterade i att en huvudkategori växte fram, Rörelse – en gemensam målsättning, samt tre underkategorier; Ett hållbart liv (1), Olika former av trygghet (2), Inre och yttre påverkan (3). Resultatet indikerar att vårdnadshavare anser att en hållbar vardag, hälsa och miljö är viktigt samt att olika former av trygghet värderas högt och kan påverkas av en rad olika faktorer. Resultatet indikerar att vårdnadshavares egna erfarenheter påverkar inställningen till AST samt att uppfattningar av omgivningens värderingar och normer gällande AST på ett omedvetet plan kan ha inflytande på den egna inställningen till skoltransportens genomförande. Hälsopromotiva insatser som ökar andelen barn som ägnar sig åt AST kan vara en del i skapandet av normer som resulterar i att andelen transporter med bil minskar. Vilket utöver att den fysiska aktiviteten ökar också skulle gynna miljön och skapa tryggare skolvägar. / There is evidence to confirm the benefits of children engaging in active school transportation (AST). Despite this, the proportion of children engaged in AST has radically decreased in recent decades. Guardians are the ones who make decisions regarding their children, which could play an important role when it comes to AST, as their attitudes towards AST can affect whether the child engages in AST or not. The aim of this study was to investigate the attitudes towards active school transportation among guardians of children in grades 1-6, living in an arctic climate. The study was based on an existing project that aimed to promote AST in a municipality in northern Sweden and was performed with a qualitative method and descriptive design to answer the purpose. The data collection consisted of individual interviews together with six participants. The interviews were conducted from a prepared interview guide and the questions were based on the theory of planned behavior. A manifest analysis of the collected data was done through five steps, which resulted in a main category: Movement - a common goal, and three subcategories; A sustainable life (1), Different forms of safety (2), Internal and external influences (3). The results indicate that guardians believe that a sustainable everyday life, health and environment are important and that various forms of safety are highly valued and can be affected by several different factors. The results indicatethat the guardian's own experiences affect their attitude towards AST, and that the perceptions of the environment's values and norms regarding AST on an unconscious level can have an influence on the guardian's own attitude to the implementation of school transport. Health-promoting initiatives that increase the proportion of children who engage in AST can be a part of the establishing of norms that result in a reduction of the proportion of transport by car. Which in addition to increasing physical activity would also benefit the environment and create safer school roads.

I denna studie undersöks yrkesverksamma inom skola och socialtjänst perspektiv på problematisk skolfrånvaro ifrån yrkesverksamma inom skola och socialtjänst. Studien är en kvalitativ semistrukturerad intervjustudie där nio intervjuer genomförts och inkluderade tio deltagare. Intervjumaterialet har analyserats utifrån ekologisk systemteori och symbolisk interaktionism. Resultatet från studien visade på att problematisk skolfrånvaro ansågs uppstå av flera olika anledningar och att det inte är eleven som enbart är problemet utan att det är också samhället som brister när problematisk skolfrånvaro uppstår. Problematisk skolfrånvaro beskrivs som ett samlingsbegrepp för att elever inte är i skolan av olika anledningar eller inte hänger med i studierna. De insatser som studiens deltagare uppfattade vara mest effektiva mot problematisk skolfrånvaro var att kartlägga barnets situation, skapa en relation till barnet vårdnadshavare för att kunna ge rätt stöd och att personal gör sällskap med barnet till skolan. / This study explores problematic school absence through the perspectives of professionals from schools and social services. It is a qualitative semi-structured interview study involving nine interviews with ten participants. The interview material was analyzed through ecological systems theory and symbolic interactionism. The study indicates that problematic school absence is attributed to a variety of reasons and that the problem lies not solely with the pupils but also with society when problematic school absence occurs. Problematic school absence is described as an umbrella term for pupils not being in school for various reasons or not keeping up with their studies. The interventions perceived as most effective by the professionals interviewed were to map the child's situation, build a relationship with the child to provide the right support, and for staff to accompany the child to school.

This thesis studies Tang sancai, a multi-coloured lead-glaze ceramic decorated ware which emerged in the Tang dynasty (AD 618 - AD 907), attaining mass production in the middle of the Tang era and declining towards its end. It examines the functions of sancai in its different aspects, namely as burial objects, as containers for ritual offerings and as architectural material. I argue that Tang sancai ware as burial objects were employed exclusively by the Tang imperial and elite families. The approach to my argument is made, in a first stage, through the observation of the physical locations of tombs that contained Tang sancai wares to demonstrate that these tombs belonged to the Tang imperial and elite family members. In a further step, I bring up two Tang decrees which laid down regulations for burials, to indicate that there was a strict hierarchical system for the allocation and utilization of burial land. These two Tang texts enable us to establish that the tombs located around the area of the imperial tombs belonged to the Tang officials and elite, and therefore not to ordinary people. In addition, the study I undertake of the structure of the tombs, with layout and organization mirroring palatial environments, reinforces my argument to that end. Lastly, I look at the cost of production of Tang sancai showing that it was higher than that of unglazed ceramics and that, consequently, sancai wares were, from an economical point of view, inaccessible to the common people. This thesis also reflects on the agency of Tang sancai, considering its aesthetic qualities and its suitability in the functions for which it served, as a force in engaging the viewers. The lasting debate on whether Tang sancai utensil-shaped wares were used for everyday eating and drinking is dealt with in this thesis by carefully examining the locations of the shards that were excavated at the sites of imperial palaces. My research enables to point out that this data is not sufficient to ascertain that this type of Tang sancai was used as daily wares. On the contrary, on the grounds that these locations were the places where ritual performances took place, I argue that sancai utensil wares were used as presentation containers for ritual performances. In the absence of records in Tang texts which could have informed about the relationship between Tang sancai and religious practice, I borrow an evidence from Japan, in the form of the hand-brush writing on a couple of Nara sancai dishes, which were copies of Tang sancai made in Japan during the time of Tang, mentioning that these vessels were specifically for use for ritual ceremonies. Furthermore, on the basis of analyses made on lead-glazed ware, some scholars assert that such ware is poisonous and could not have been used to contain food or drink, as much as no evidence exists to show that ancient Chinese had used lead-glazed wares for that purpose. This leads to the clarification that Tang sancai utensil-shaped wares were not produced for everyday use, their purpose having actually been to serve as vessels for offerings in rituals. I further observe that this connection between sancai and ritual-themed objects, initiated by the Tang, has in fact pervaded through the succeeding dynasties affirming its role in religious ceremonials. Finally, this thesis also looks at Tang sancai as an architectural material to show that it was skillfully used in decorating buildings, not only as tiles and tile-ends, but also as large-sized roof ornaments. The research reveals, in the process, the possible dates when sancai architectural material started to be used popularly during the Tang era.

This study is focusing on the importance of the development of children’s language skills in preschools and kindergartens for successful implementation of children’s capabilities in future life. This is particularly vital for children growing up in socioeconomic vulnerable areas. The Swedish Police Authority defines Socioeconomic vulnerable areas as having a high unemployment rate, high crime rate and failed schoolings resulting which contributes to a social exclusion from the Swedish society, which lead to the unfortunate emergence of parallel societies. Swedish Government has assigned a one hundred million Swedish Krones for investing in implementation of sustainable social future for people in the socioeconomic vulnerable areas, but the Swedish scientific community is raising a concern that so far there are not enough studies made to reveal the strategic focus points for this investment. More studies on the subject are urgently needed. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate in this knowledge gap, particularly in finding connection between identity creation and language development and in comparing of different preschool and kindergarten teachers' approaches for improvement of children’s language development skills as well as finding ways to improve a cooperation with children’s guardians. In accordance with Sen and Nussbaum Capability Approach, an education should help children to advance in their capabilities as a prerequisite for sustainable development goals achievement in future. This study’s quotative and qualitative analysis is based on a Hermeneutic approach and semi-structured interviews. The respondents are explaining their concepts and views on the subject and several of them are noticing an age-connected pattern in development of children’s personalities as being formed primarily through development of their language skills. Some of the interview-questions touch upon finding an effective intercultural and sociocultural ways of cooperating with children’s guardians in order to develop children’s capabilities. The guardians’ greater embedment in cooperation is ought to help bringing up a democratic citizen well-integrated in the society as well as to lead to an improvement of students’ grades on later stages of compulsory education. The study lays basis for further studies on the subject. / Denna studie fokuserar på vikten av att utveckla barns språkkunskaper i förskolor för ett framgångsrikt genomförande av barns förmåga i framtida liv. Detta är särskilt viktigt för barn som växer upp i socioekonomiska utsatta områden. Polismyndigheten definierar socioekonomiska utsatta områden som hög arbetslöshet, hög brottslighet och misslyckade skolor, vilket leder till en social utestängning från det svenska samhället, vilket leder till att det uppstår olyckliga parallella samhällen. Den svenska regeringen har tilldelat hundra miljoner svenska kronor för att investera i genomförandet av en hållbar social framtid för människor i de socioekonomiska utsatta områdena, men det svenska vetenskapssamhället väcker oro för att det hittills inte finns tillräckligt med studier för att avslöja de strategiska fokuspunkterna för denna investering. Det behövs akut fler studier om ämnet. Syftet med denna studie är därför att undersöka i denna kunskapsklyfta, särskilt när det gäller att hitta samband mellan identitetsskapande och språkutveckling och att jämföra olika förskolelärares tillvägagångssätt för förbättring av barns språkutvecklingsfärdigheter samt att hitta sätt att förbättra ett samarbete med barns vårdnadshavare. I enlighet med kapacitetsmetoden Sen och Nussbaum bör en utbildning hjälpa barn att utvecklas i sin förmåga som en förutsättning för att framtida mål för hållbar utveckling ska uppnås. Studiens kvotativa och kvalitativa analys bygger på ett hermeneutiskt tillvägagångssätt och halvstrukturerade intervjuer. Respondenterna förklarar sina begrepp och åsikter om ämnet och flera av dem märker ett åldersrelaterat mönster i utvecklingen av barns personligheter som främst bildas genom utveckling av deras språkkunskaper. Några av intervjufrågorna berör att hitta ett effektivt interkulturellt och sociokulturellt sätt att samarbeta med barns vårdnadshavare för att utveckla barns förmåga. Förmyndarnas större inbäddning i samarbete borde hjälpa till att fostra en demokratisk medborgare som är väl integrerad i samhället samt att leda till en förbättring av elevernas betyg i senare stadier av obligatorisk utbildning. Studien lägger grunden för ytterligare studier om ämnet.

During the last twenty years there has been a proliferation of local studies of Poor Law administration, many of them concerned with the period of transition from the Old to the New Poor Laws. This thesis complements other local studies; it offers a detailed examination of Poor Law administration in and around the rapidly expanding industrial town of Bradford. At the same time, the thesis seeks to broaden the scope of such local studies by placing the Poor Law more firmly within its local social, economic and political context. Bradford's experiences are compared with those of other, particularly northern, urban Unions, and for the period after 1848, detailed comparison is made between Poor Law administration in the neighbouring Bradford and North Bierley Unions. Chapter 1 highlights those elements of Bradford's economic and social structure likely to exert the greatest influence on Poor Law administration. Chapter 2 examines administrative structures and relief practices under the Old Poor Law, with particular reference to the area's claim to-administrative efficiency. Chapter 3 examines local reactions to the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act and traces the history of Bradford's popular anti-Poor Law movement. Chapter 4 investigates the new administrative structure. Chapter 4(1) evidences the occupational and political distinctions between the Borough and non-Borough Guardians, highlighting the political dimension of Poor Law administration. Chapter 4(ii) analyses the mechanics of relief distribution and Chapter 4(iii) examines the New Poor Law's'shaky financial base. Chapter 5(i) looks at the fate of the principles of 1834 with regard to able-bodied paupers and at the debate surrounding the introduction of the Outdoor Labour Test Order. Chapter 5(ii) deals largely with the provision of outdoor medical relief. Chapter 5(iii) examines the Workhouse regime and the treatment of particular groups of inmates, such as the mentally ill and vagrants. The education provided for Workhouse children is compared with that available to the independent poor. The Chapter concludes with a detailed examination of the Workhouse debate of 1846-8. Chapter 5(iv) investigates non-statutory relief provision in Bradford and attempts to assess its qualitative and quantitative importance. Chapter 6 examines the operation of the Law of Settlement, the workings of the non-resident relief system and the immediate impact of the legislation of 1846-7. Chapter 7 outlines the Poor Law authorities' involvement in bastardy affiliation actions. Chapter 8 assesses the impact of the New Poor Law and considers some of the major determinants of relief policy, including a survey of local attitudes to poverty. Part One concludes with the Union's division in 1848. Part Two considers the more settled administration of the 1850s and 1860s, building on the framework used in Part One. Chapter 9 looks at the occupations, politics and conduct of business of the Bradford and North Marley Boards of Guardians. Chapter 10 traces changes in the system of distributing relief and in the Poor Law's financial base, with particular reference to the financial reforms culminating in the Union Chargeability Act of 1865. Chapter 11 pursues the able-bodied debate, continues the earlier survey of outdoor medical relief and examines the novel provision of education for the children of outdoor paupers. Chapter 12 catalogues the erection of new Union Workhouses in Bradford and North Bierley and traces their evolving role as general pauper hospitals. Chapter 13 examines the enlarged contribution of charities in Bradford while Chapter 14 surveys the continuing but reduced impact of the Law of Settlement. Chapter 15 comments on the changes seen in the later period.

This thesis concerns itself with a phenomenon found in film music that can be described as audible diegetic transitions. In short, an audible diegetic transition occurs when film music shifts from one implied musical placement to another by changing its pre­sented sound quality. This occurs predominantly through the employment of music that is pre-existing in relation to the release of the film where the music is utilised. These audible diegetic transitions are categorised as aural displacements and transaural dis­placements which are both anchored in previous re­search concerning stable musical place­ments. In order to answer the research questions regarding technical aspects and narra­tological implications, the thesis is centred around a film music analysis. The de­marcation of said analysis uses pre-existing songs from the film Joker (Philips, 2019) as its main focus. In order to provide a colourful and meaningful discussion the selected material also contains a variety of examples from other films. The analysis shows that the selected audible diegetic transitions can provide narra­tological implications both for a film as a whole and for a specific scene or se­quence in any film. In Joker specifically, the audible diegetic transitions arguably contain the narra­to­logi­cal im­plication of adding to the retrospective and unreliable narration, which is im­port­ant for the story of the film. The thesis also argues that the technical aspects of the ana­lysed audible diegetic transitions can be condensed into being either diegetic to comm­en­tary, or vice versa. Diegetic music is, in this context, defined as music that is im­­­­plied as being heard in the acoustic space of the story-world, whereas commen­tary music is an um­brella term defined as music that is not implied being heard in the acous­tic space of the story-world. The analysis shows that these transitions can transpire either instantly or gra­­­dually with the change of sound quality from being either narrow or wide. These tech­nical aspects contribute in under­standing the narratological im­plications of said au­dible diegetic transition by categorising them as either emotive or groun­ding. Both of these narratological implications can be concluded and described as swift enforcers of the relationship be­tween the one consuming the film and the char­acters, or lo­cations, of the film they are con­­­­suming. Audible diegetic transitions figura­tively breach the fourth wall that is the screen.

This dissertation investigates the literary and cinematic use of the child’s perspective to present the Mexican Revolution and the Spanish Civil War and their aftermath in several Mexican, Spanish, and international (Mexican-Spanish collaborative) narratives of the 20th and early 21st Centuries written by adult authors and filmmakers, and targeted for adult audiences. The Mexican narratives are Cartucho and Las manos de mamá by Nellie Campobello, Balún Canán by Rosario Castellanos, and Bandidos, a film by Luis Estrada; selected Spanish works are El espíritu de la colmena by Víctor Erice, Cría cuervos by Carlos Saura, and El sur by Adelaida García Morales; and both international works are films by Guillermo del Toro, El espinazo del diablo and El laberinto del fauno. I attempt to determine the textual or cinematic function of the child as first person (homodiegetic) narrative viewer in these works, and I study the different ways in which this child’s point of view is constructed in order to depict the overwhelming tragedy of war. I note patterns and diversities in subject matter presented by the narrative voice, and observe the characteristics of the child narrative viewer’s world and priorities (as presented by the authors and filmmakers), paying careful attention to how each perceives and understands his or her country’s violent upheaval and its aftermath. The theoretical framework of this investigation draws mainly from trauma theory, Gothic studies, and the tradition of the fairy tale. I illustrate how within the war narrative in addition to the author’s/filmmaker’s desire to recreate the sentiment that a child would evoke in adult readers and viewers, the child narrative viewer is employed for three main reasons: to play upon or against preexisting notions of the child’s innocence; to represent (possibly subversively) the nation; and as therapeutic means of returning to a paradise lost or creating a paradise never experienced. / text