Este estudo discute uma climatologia de 59 anos (1949-2007) de bloqueios no Hemisfério Sul (SH) usando dados de altura geopotencial em 500-hPa das reanálises do National Center for Environmental Prediction / National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP-NCAR). A variabilidade espaço-temporal dos eventos de bloqueio e associações com o El Niño/Oscilação do Sul (ENOS) também foram examinadas. Adicionalmente, os bloqueios foram investigados em dois Modelos de Circulação Geral Acoplados Atmosfera-Oceano de clima (MCGAO) do Intergovernamental Painel for Climate Change (IPCC), o ECHAM5/MPI-OM e o MIROC 3.2. Dois cenários simulados foram analisados: O clima do século XX e o cenário de emissão A1B. Os episódios do ENOS foram identificados usando dois métodos. O primeiro foi o Índice Oceânico Mensal do Niño (ONI) do Climate Prediction Center (CPC-NCEP). O segundo método foi baseado em Funções Empíricas Ortogonais (EOF) e foi aplicado nos MCGAOs. Similarmente, também foi examinado a influencia combinada do ENOS e a Oscilação Antártica (AAO) na ocorrência e características dos bloqueios. O índice diário da AAO foi obtido pelo CPC-NCEP. Os índices convencionais de bloqueios detectam principalmente variações longitudinais. Este trabalho propõe um índice de bloqueio que detecta, além de variações longitudinais também as variações latitudinais dos bloqueios. Cinco setores relevantes de bloqueios foram examinados em detalhes: Indico Sudoeste (SB1), Pacífico Sudoeste (SB2), Pacífico Central (SB3), Pacífico Sudeste (SB4) e Atlântico Sudoeste (SB5). Além disso, foram investigados duas grandes regiões do Pacífico Sul: Pacífico Oeste e Pacífico Leste. Foi encontrado que a escala média típica dos eventos de bloqueio varia entre 1,5 e 2,5 dias. Além disso, a duração dos eventos depende da latitude, com eventos de maior duração observados em latitudes mais altas. Diferenças longitudinais estatisticamente significativas na freqüência do escoamento bloqueado foram observadas entre as fases Quente e Neutra do ENOS desde o outono a primavera. Episódios intensos da fase Quente do ENOS (isto é, moderados a fortes) tendem a modificar o local preferencial de bloqueio, mas não a freqüência. Por outro lado, os episódios fracos da fase Quente do ENOS estiveram associados relativamente com alta freqüência. Os Eventos de bloqueio durante o ENOS+ duram, em média, mais um dia relativamente aos episódios Neutros. Em contraste, a fase Fria do ENOS (ENOS-) caracterizou-se pela redução dos eventos de bloqueio sobre o setor do Pacífico Central, exceto durante os meses do verão austral. Entretanto, nenhuma diferença estatisticamente significativa foi detectada na duração dos eventos. Composições de anomalias de vento em 200-hPa indicam que o enfraquecimento (fortalecimento) do jato polar em torno de 60ºS durante a AAO negativa (positiva) em ambas as fases do ENOS tem uma importância significativa no aumento (redução) dos eventos de bloqueio. Um significativo aumento estatístico dos eventos sobre o setor do Pacífico Sudeste foi observado durante a AAO negativa em ambas as fases do ENOS. Ainda, um aumento (redução) dos eventos foi observado sobre a região do Pacífico Oeste na fase negativa (positiva) da AAO durante o ENOS-. Em contraste, durante o ENOS+ não houve diferenças estatisticamente significativas na distribuição longitudinal dos eventos separado de acordo com as fases opostas da AAO, embora haja um aumento (redução) dos eventos da região do Pacífico Oeste para o Pacífico Leste durante a fase negativa (positiva) da AAO. Os MCGAOs simularam corretamente a amplitude do ciclo anual observado. Também, ambos os MCGAOs simularam melhor a duração e o local preferencial do que freqüência. Nenhum MCGAO simulou adequadamente a freqüência durante a fase Neutra do ENOS. O ECHAM5/MPI-OM (rodada 2) mostra um erro sistemático que levam a uma superestimativa na freqüência de eventos sobre o Pacífico Leste durante as fases Neutra e Fria do ENOS. As diferenças entre as duas versões do MIROC 3.2 indicam que a alta resolução nos modelos melhora o desempenho em simular a freqüência de bloqueios. / This study discusses 59-yr climatology (1949-2007) of Southern Hemisphere (SH) blockings using daily 500-hPa geopotential height data from National Center for Environmental Prediction / National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP-NCAR reanalysis. The spatiotemporal variability of blocking events and associations with El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are examined. Additionally, blockings were examined in two Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) Coupled General Circulation Models (CGCM), ECHAM5/MPI-OM and MIROC 3.2. Two sets of simulations were examined: the climate of the 20th century and the A1B emission scenario. ENSO episodes were identified using two methods. The first method was the Monthly Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) from the Climate Prediction Center (CPC-NCEP). The second method was based on Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) and was applied to identify ENSO episodes in the CGCMs. Similarly, the combined influence of ENSO and the Antarctic Oscillation (AAO) on the occurrence and characteristics of blockings was also examined. The daily AAO index was obtained from CPC/NCEP. Most conventional blocking indices detect longitudinal variations of blockings. In this study we propose a new blocking index that detects longitudinal and latitudinal variations of blockings. The following relevant sectors of blocking occurrence were identified and examined in detail: Southeast Indian (SB1), Southwest Pacific (SB2), Central Pacific (SB3), Southeast Pacific (SB4) and Southwest Atlantic (SB5) oceans. In addition, we investigated two large regions of South Pacific: West Pacific and East Pacific. We found that the typical timescale of a blocking event is about ~1.5 2.5 days. Nonetheless, the duration of events depends on the latitude, with larger durations observed at higher latitudes. Statistically significant differences in the longitude of blockings are observed between Warm (ENSO+) and Neutral ENSO phases from the Austral fall to spring. Moderate to strong Warm ENSO episodes modulate the preferred locations of blockings but do not play a significant role for variations in their frequency. On the other hand, weak ENOS+ episodes were associated with relatively high frequency of blockings. Blocking events during ENSO+ last on average one more day compared to events that occur during Neutral episodes. In contrast, Cold (ENOS-) ENSO episodes are characterized by a decrease of blockings over the Central Pacific sector, except during the Austral summer months. However, no statistically significant differences are detected in the duration. Composites of 200-hPa zonal wind anomalies indicate that the weakening (strengthening) of the polar jet around 60oS during negative (positive) AAO phases in both ENSO phases plays a major role for the relative increase (decrease) of blocking events. A statistically significant increase of events over Southeast Pacific is observed during negative AAO phases in both ENSO phases. Moreover, an increase (decrease) of events is observed over West Pacific region when negative (positive) AAO phases occur during ENSO-. In contrast, during ENSO+ there is no statistically significant difference in the longitudinal distribution of events separated according to opposite AAO phases, although there is an increase (decrease) in the events from West Pacific region to East Pacific during negative (positive) AAO phase. The CGCMs investigated in this study correctly simulated the amplitude of observed annual cycle of geopotential height in the extratropics. Also, both CGCMs show a better performance in simulating the duration and preferred locations of blockings than their frequency. None of these CGCMs simulated well the frequency during Neutral ENSO phase. The ECHAM5/MPI-OM (run2) shows systematic biases in some regions. For instance, this model overestimates the frequency of blockings over East Pacific region during Cold and Neutral ENSO phases. The differences between the two versions of MIROC 3.2 indicate that the increase in resolution improves the performance of the model in simulating the frequency of blockings.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-26T13:50:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 4315083 bytes, checksum: f74f2bdc5700e60faa4a138205cf307f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-07-25 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Sea Surface Temperature (SST) is able to influence the atmospheric circulation and consequently changes weather patterns in both local and global scale. This study aimed to understand how temperature and precipitation in South America respond to modes of climate variability such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Atlantic Dipole (AD), for current and future conditions, considering an extreme emission scenario of GreenHouse effect (GHG). We used four models as part of coupled model of Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change/Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC/AR5), intercomparison project, Phase 5 (CMIP5): MRI (Meteorology Research Institute, Japan), INM (Institute for Numerical Mathematics, Russia), NCC (Norwegian Climate Center, Norway) and ECHAM / MPI (Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Germany). The results have shown that the dominant patterns in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, are respectively the ENSO and Dipole Atlantic which were better simulated by the models MPI and NCC (INM and MRI) and proved satisfactory (unsatisfactory) and able (unable) to reproduce the response of precipitation and temperature in relation to observed climate over the South America. For future conditions it has been found more intense episodes of ENSO, while for AD the inter-hemispheric gradients is more intense. Furthermore, it is projected that this pattern, known as the negative phase of AD, may significantly influence the atmospheric circulation and alter the patterns of temperature and precipitation in South America. / A Temperatura da Superfície do Mar (TSM) é capaz de influenciar na circulação atmosférica e consequentemente alterar os padrões climáticos tanto em escala local quanto global. Este trabalho buscou entender como a temperatura e precipitação na América do Sul respondem em função dos modos de variabilidade climática El Niño Oscilação-Sul (ENSO) e Dipolo do Atlântico (DA), para as condições atuais e futuras, considerando um cenário extremo de emissão de Gases de Efeito Estuda (GEE). Foram utilizados quatro modelos climáticos acoplados do Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change/Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC/AR5), pertencentes ao Projeto de Intercomparação de Modelos Acoplados, Fase 5 (CMIP5): MRI (Meteorology Research Institute, Japão), INM (Institute for Numerical Mathematics, Rússia), NCC (Norwegian Climate Center, Noruega) e ECHAM/MPI (Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Alemanha). Os resultados mostraram que os padrões dominantes nos Oceanos Pacífico e Atlântico, são respectivamente o ENSO e Dipolo do Atlântico e foram melhor reproduzidos pelos modelos MPI e NCC (INM e MRI) e se mostraram satisfatórios (insatisfatórios) e capazes (incapazes) de reproduzir a resposta da precipitação e temperatura, em relação ao clima observado sobre a AS. Para condições futuras têm-se episódios de ENSO mais intensos, enquanto que para configurações do tipo DA notam-se gradientes inter-hemisféricos mais intensos, onde se observou TSM's mais baixas no Atlântico Norte. Além disso, projeta-se que este padrão, conhecido como fase negativa do DA, poderá influenciar significativamente na circulação atmosférica e alterar os padrões de temperatura e precipitação na AS.

Este estudo discute uma climatologia de 59 anos (1949-2007) de bloqueios no Hemisfério Sul (SH) usando dados de altura geopotencial em 500-hPa das reanálises do National Center for Environmental Prediction / National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP-NCAR). A variabilidade espaço-temporal dos eventos de bloqueio e associações com o El Niño/Oscilação do Sul (ENOS) também foram examinadas. Adicionalmente, os bloqueios foram investigados em dois Modelos de Circulação Geral Acoplados Atmosfera-Oceano de clima (MCGAO) do Intergovernamental Painel for Climate Change (IPCC), o ECHAM5/MPI-OM e o MIROC 3.2. Dois cenários simulados foram analisados: O clima do século XX e o cenário de emissão A1B. Os episódios do ENOS foram identificados usando dois métodos. O primeiro foi o Índice Oceânico Mensal do Niño (ONI) do Climate Prediction Center (CPC-NCEP). O segundo método foi baseado em Funções Empíricas Ortogonais (EOF) e foi aplicado nos MCGAOs. Similarmente, também foi examinado a influencia combinada do ENOS e a Oscilação Antártica (AAO) na ocorrência e características dos bloqueios. O índice diário da AAO foi obtido pelo CPC-NCEP. Os índices convencionais de bloqueios detectam principalmente variações longitudinais. Este trabalho propõe um índice de bloqueio que detecta, além de variações longitudinais também as variações latitudinais dos bloqueios. Cinco setores relevantes de bloqueios foram examinados em detalhes: Indico Sudoeste (SB1), Pacífico Sudoeste (SB2), Pacífico Central (SB3), Pacífico Sudeste (SB4) e Atlântico Sudoeste (SB5). Além disso, foram investigados duas grandes regiões do Pacífico Sul: Pacífico Oeste e Pacífico Leste. Foi encontrado que a escala média típica dos eventos de bloqueio varia entre 1,5 e 2,5 dias. Além disso, a duração dos eventos depende da latitude, com eventos de maior duração observados em latitudes mais altas. Diferenças longitudinais estatisticamente significativas na freqüência do escoamento bloqueado foram observadas entre as fases Quente e Neutra do ENOS desde o outono a primavera. Episódios intensos da fase Quente do ENOS (isto é, moderados a fortes) tendem a modificar o local preferencial de bloqueio, mas não a freqüência. Por outro lado, os episódios fracos da fase Quente do ENOS estiveram associados relativamente com alta freqüência. Os Eventos de bloqueio durante o ENOS+ duram, em média, mais um dia relativamente aos episódios Neutros. Em contraste, a fase Fria do ENOS (ENOS-) caracterizou-se pela redução dos eventos de bloqueio sobre o setor do Pacífico Central, exceto durante os meses do verão austral. Entretanto, nenhuma diferença estatisticamente significativa foi detectada na duração dos eventos. Composições de anomalias de vento em 200-hPa indicam que o enfraquecimento (fortalecimento) do jato polar em torno de 60ºS durante a AAO negativa (positiva) em ambas as fases do ENOS tem uma importância significativa no aumento (redução) dos eventos de bloqueio. Um significativo aumento estatístico dos eventos sobre o setor do Pacífico Sudeste foi observado durante a AAO negativa em ambas as fases do ENOS. Ainda, um aumento (redução) dos eventos foi observado sobre a região do Pacífico Oeste na fase negativa (positiva) da AAO durante o ENOS-. Em contraste, durante o ENOS+ não houve diferenças estatisticamente significativas na distribuição longitudinal dos eventos separado de acordo com as fases opostas da AAO, embora haja um aumento (redução) dos eventos da região do Pacífico Oeste para o Pacífico Leste durante a fase negativa (positiva) da AAO. Os MCGAOs simularam corretamente a amplitude do ciclo anual observado. Também, ambos os MCGAOs simularam melhor a duração e o local preferencial do que freqüência. Nenhum MCGAO simulou adequadamente a freqüência durante a fase Neutra do ENOS. O ECHAM5/MPI-OM (rodada 2) mostra um erro sistemático que levam a uma superestimativa na freqüência de eventos sobre o Pacífico Leste durante as fases Neutra e Fria do ENOS. As diferenças entre as duas versões do MIROC 3.2 indicam que a alta resolução nos modelos melhora o desempenho em simular a freqüência de bloqueios. / This study discusses 59-yr climatology (1949-2007) of Southern Hemisphere (SH) blockings using daily 500-hPa geopotential height data from National Center for Environmental Prediction / National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP-NCAR reanalysis. The spatiotemporal variability of blocking events and associations with El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are examined. Additionally, blockings were examined in two Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) Coupled General Circulation Models (CGCM), ECHAM5/MPI-OM and MIROC 3.2. Two sets of simulations were examined: the climate of the 20th century and the A1B emission scenario. ENSO episodes were identified using two methods. The first method was the Monthly Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) from the Climate Prediction Center (CPC-NCEP). The second method was based on Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) and was applied to identify ENSO episodes in the CGCMs. Similarly, the combined influence of ENSO and the Antarctic Oscillation (AAO) on the occurrence and characteristics of blockings was also examined. The daily AAO index was obtained from CPC/NCEP. Most conventional blocking indices detect longitudinal variations of blockings. In this study we propose a new blocking index that detects longitudinal and latitudinal variations of blockings. The following relevant sectors of blocking occurrence were identified and examined in detail: Southeast Indian (SB1), Southwest Pacific (SB2), Central Pacific (SB3), Southeast Pacific (SB4) and Southwest Atlantic (SB5) oceans. In addition, we investigated two large regions of South Pacific: West Pacific and East Pacific. We found that the typical timescale of a blocking event is about ~1.5 2.5 days. Nonetheless, the duration of events depends on the latitude, with larger durations observed at higher latitudes. Statistically significant differences in the longitude of blockings are observed between Warm (ENSO+) and Neutral ENSO phases from the Austral fall to spring. Moderate to strong Warm ENSO episodes modulate the preferred locations of blockings but do not play a significant role for variations in their frequency. On the other hand, weak ENOS+ episodes were associated with relatively high frequency of blockings. Blocking events during ENSO+ last on average one more day compared to events that occur during Neutral episodes. In contrast, Cold (ENOS-) ENSO episodes are characterized by a decrease of blockings over the Central Pacific sector, except during the Austral summer months. However, no statistically significant differences are detected in the duration. Composites of 200-hPa zonal wind anomalies indicate that the weakening (strengthening) of the polar jet around 60oS during negative (positive) AAO phases in both ENSO phases plays a major role for the relative increase (decrease) of blocking events. A statistically significant increase of events over Southeast Pacific is observed during negative AAO phases in both ENSO phases. Moreover, an increase (decrease) of events is observed over West Pacific region when negative (positive) AAO phases occur during ENSO-. In contrast, during ENSO+ there is no statistically significant difference in the longitudinal distribution of events separated according to opposite AAO phases, although there is an increase (decrease) in the events from West Pacific region to East Pacific during negative (positive) AAO phase. The CGCMs investigated in this study correctly simulated the amplitude of observed annual cycle of geopotential height in the extratropics. Also, both CGCMs show a better performance in simulating the duration and preferred locations of blockings than their frequency. None of these CGCMs simulated well the frequency during Neutral ENSO phase. The ECHAM5/MPI-OM (run2) shows systematic biases in some regions. For instance, this model overestimates the frequency of blockings over East Pacific region during Cold and Neutral ENSO phases. The differences between the two versions of MIROC 3.2 indicate that the increase in resolution improves the performance of the model in simulating the frequency of blockings.

Universities world wide do efforts to integrate education on climate change in the educational programs, but teaching about climate change is challenging: the climate system is complex, future prognoses include difficult terms of likeliness and the topic as such awakes emotions. Simulations and games are sometimes used to address climate change matters, and along with an increasing number of available interactive online simulations there is an on-going revolution in how online-material is used to provide students with information in higher education. Some practitioners move parts of the informative course material online in order to get more time for active learning – learning processes in which the student is participating more actively than just listening. This master thesis investigates if active learning can support students when learning about climate change in higher technical education. Data for the research was collected through three case studies of interactive seminars, in climate related courses at the Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden, and at the University of Graz, Austria. The active learning was facilitated through gaming sessions with a climate board game, with exercises in vocabulary and discussions as well as explanations of the physical science basis. One student group was provided with a series of lectures prior to the board gaming session, whereas the other two groups were participating in a single seminar with the flipped classroom approach: students followed a study instruction with online material as well as reading of scientific papers on Earth’s climate system and climate change before the interactive gaming seminar took place. Analysis of survey responds (n=102), mind-map reflections (n=14) and interviews (n=5) led to the development of three key findings: (1) students’ attitudes toward learning about climate change involves emotions, (2) the active gaming seminar increased the students’ understanding of climate change and (3) students’ confidence - in their own understanding as well as in their ability to explain climate change – increased through the participation in the active learning seminar. Moreover, a reflection drawn from the results in this study indicates that universities could play an important role in climate communication; if a university provides an introduction to climate change, the students can be “pushed over a threshold”, so that future participation in discussions on the topic may become less distant. Using games as an active learning tool in the introduction can increase student understanding and confidence in the topic of climate change - and doing so in a supportive and enjoyable manner. / Universitet världen över gör ansträngningar för att integrera undervisning av klimatförändringarna i sina utbildningsprogram, men klimatförändringarna är ett utmanande ämne: klimatsystemet är komplext, framtidsprognoser innefattar svårtolkade sannolikhetstermer och ämnet som sådant väcker många känslor. Simulationer och spel att en lärandemetod för att beröra ämnet, och samtidigt som det finns ett allt större utbud av undervisningsmaterial om klimatförändringarna på internet, sker en snabb förändring i hur online-material används för att förse studenter med information i den högre utbildningen. I vissa kurser flyttas en del av det informativa kursmaterialet till online-plattformar för att frigöra mer tid för aktivt lärande – lärande, i vilket studenten är mer aktiv än att enbart lyssna. I den här masteruppsatsen utreds huruvida aktivt lärande kan stödja studenter i lärandet om klimatförändringarna i högre teknisk utbildning. Data till studien samlades från tre studentgrupper som deltog i interaktiva klimatseminarier på Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, KTH, och på Universitetet i Graz. För att uppnå aktivt lärande användes ett klimatbrädspel, med övningar i begrepp, vokabulär och diskussioner samt bearbetning av vetenskapliga förklaringar kring klimatförändringarna. En studentgrupp lyssnade till en föreläsningsserie före deltagandet i spelseminariet, de andra två grupperna deltog däremot enbart i ett seminarium med flipped classroom metoden: studenterna följde en instuderingsinstruktion med online-material och vetenskapliga skrifter innan de kom till spelseminariet. Analys av enkätsvar (n=102), mind-map-reflektioner (n=14) och intervjuer (n=5) ledde till tre huvudsakliga slutsatser: (1) studenternas attityder kring lärandet av klimatförändringarna påverkas av känslor, (2) studiens spelseminarier ökade studenternas förståelse av klimatförändringarna och (3) efter den aktiva lärandemetoden var studenterna mer bekväma med att förklara klimatförändringarna samt fick större förtroende till sin kunskap i ämnet. Vidare kan resultaten i den här studien tolkas som att klimatundervisning i högre utbildning kan utgöra en viktig roll för mottagandet av klimatkommunikation; om ett universitet förser studenter med en introduktion till vetenskap om klimatförändringarna kan studenterna ”tvingas över en tröskel”, så att framtida deltagande i diskussioner i ämnet kan bli mindre avlägsna. Studenterna i studien upplevde nämligen en brist på trovärdig information om klimatförändringarna i det dagliga nyhetsflödet, därför uppskattade de att ta del av vetenskaplig information och komplexa diskussioner under spelseminariet. Att använda utbildande brädspel som en aktivt-lärande-metod kan öka studenters självsäkerhet och förståelse av klimatförändringarna – på ett stödjande och glädjefyllt sätt.

FN:s klimatpanel Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) publicerade i Augusti 2021 en rapport som har uppmärksammats som en “kod röd” för mänskligheten i kampen mot klimatförändringar. Tidigare forskning visar att klimat- och miljöevent kan ge en avvikelseavkastning för hållbara investeringar. Dock saknas en liknande studie på den svenska aktiemarknaden och vi undersöker i denna studie om publiceringen av IPCC-rapporten 2021 hade en påverkan på avkastningen på Stockholmsbörsen. Vi genomför en eventstudie för att se marknadsreaktionerna för hela börsen, samt för aktier med höga respektive låga ENV-score (miljöbetyg). Inga signifikanta resultat kunde observeras och tolkningen görs att den svenska aktiemarknaden inte reagerade på publiceringen av IPCC-rapporten. / The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released a report on climate change in August of 2021. The report has been seen as a "code red" for humanity's fight against climate change. Previous research shows that climate and environmental events can result in abnormal stock returns for sustainable investments. However, a similar study is missing for the Swedish market and in this study we investigate if the publication of the report from IPCC 2021 had an impact on the return on the Stockholm Stock Exchange. We conduct an event study to see the stock market reactions for the entire stock exchange, as well as for sustainable and less sustainable stocks. No significant results could be observed and we therefore conclude that the Swedish stock market did not react to the release of the IPCC report.

As climate change progresses, extreme weather events such as heatwaves, heavy rainfall, and flooding are expected to become more common and frequent. Increased climate-related risks pose multiple threats to society, including damage to properties and infrastructure, loss of human lives, and economic instability. This necessitates property owners to adapt to future climate scenarios. To direct capital towards sustainable investments and contribute to a green transition, the EU has introduced measures such as the EU Taxonomy, and the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD), which an increasing number of companies will gradually be covered by. Many companies are unprepared for the growing demands of the CSRD, which must be reported according to the European Sustainability Reporting Standards (ESRS).  The purpose of this report is to identify the climate-related risks faced by real estate companies, focusing on properties for public use, and to highlight the economic consequences of these risks. Furthermore, the report aims to contribute to the development of methods for ongoing management of climate risks, including prioritization and action planning, as well as exploring how real estate companies can integrate climate adaptation in line with ESRS. The development of the model for climate and vulnerability analyses is based on previous analyses conducted by various actors and adapted to ESRS. Semi-structured interviews have been conducted with industry players to gain insight into how the work on climate adaptation of properties is progressing and its financial impact. To investigate how market value can be affected by preventive climate adaptation measures compared to post-climate event costs, a Discounted Cash Flow Analysis was performed. A five-step model has been developed, including: mapping of the property portfolio, identifying climate-related risks, risk analysis and property-specific characteristics, risk assessment, and implementation of climate adaptation measures. Investments in climate adaptation measures are cheaper in the long run than not adapting, as the costs of damage are often much higher and have a more negative impact on property values. The work on climate adaptation is an ongoing process, and sustainability reporting according to CSRD is complex. Insurance companies only compensate for damages classified as "unforeseen and sudden." This means that properties need to be climate-adapted to be insurable. Without insurance protection, it also becomes difficult to obtain bank loans, as properties are often used as collateral. / I takt med klimatförändringarna förväntas extremväder som värmeböljor, skyfall och översvämningar bli allt vanligare och mer frekventa. Ökade klimatrelaterade risker hotar samhället på många sätt, såsom skador på fastigheter och infrastruktur, människoliv och ekonomisk stabilitet. Vilket ställer krav på fastighetsägare att klimatanpassa utifrån framtida klimatscenarier. För att styra kapital mot hållbara investeringar och bidra till en grön omställning har EU bland annat infört EU-taxonomin, och Corporate Sustainabilty Reporting Directive (CSRD), som allt fler företag successivt kommer att omfattas av. Många företag är inte förberedda på de ökande kraven från CSRD som ska redovisas enligt European Sustainability Reporting Standards (ESRS).  Syftet med rapporten är att identifiera klimatrelaterade risker som fastighetsbolag, med fokus på samhällsfastigheter, står inför samt att belysa de ekonomiska konsekvenserna av dessa risker. Vidare syftar rapporten till att bidra till utvecklingen av metoder för löpande hantering av klimatrisker, inklusive prioritering och åtgärdsplanering, samt att undersöka hur fastighetsbolag kan integrera klimatanpassning i linje med ESRS. Utvecklingen av modellen för klimat- och sårbarhetsanalyser baseras på tidigare analyser utförda av olika aktörer samt anpassning till ESRS. Semi-strukturerade intervjuer har genomförts med branschaktörer för att få en inblick i hur arbetet med klimatanpassning av fastigheter pågår och dess finansiella påverkan. För att undersöka hur marknadsvärdet kan påverkas av förebyggande klimatanpassningsåtgärder jämfört med kostnader efter en klimathändelse, genomfördes en kassaflödesanalys (Discounted Cashflow Analysis).  En 5-stegsmodell har utvecklats som inkluderar: kartläggning av fastighetsbeståndet, identifiering av klimatrelaterade risker, riskanalys och fastighetsspecifika egenskaper, riskbedömning samt implementering av klimatanpassningsåtgärder. Investeringar i klimatanpassningsåtgärder är billigare i längden än att inte klimatanpassa, eftersom kostnaderna för skador ofta är mycket högre och påverkar fastighetsvärdet mer negativt. Arbetet med klimatanpassning är en pågående process, och hållbarhetsrapportering enligt CSRD är komplicerat. Försäkringsbolag ersätter endast skador som klassas som ” plötsliga och oförutsedda”. Detta innebär att fastigheter behöver klimatanpassas för att vara kunna försäkras. Utan försäkringsskydd blir det dessutom svårt att få banklån, då fastigheter ofta används som säkerhet.

L'expertise internationale joue un rôle important dans la mise à l’agenda d’enjeux environnementaux globaux. Ces évaluations sont souvent contestées, en particulier là où les faits et les valeurs sont fortement imbriqués. Cette thèse examine le cas du Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur l'évolution du climat (GIEC), une des organisations d’experts les plus contestées. Elle s'intéresse plus généralement à comment ces organisations maintiennent leur autorité, en croisant les apports théoriques des études des sciences et des techniques et de la sociologie des organisations internationales. Un argument central est que le GIEC, en partie à cause de l'univers controversé dans lequel il évolue, est devenu une bureaucratie internationale. La thèse identifie quatre arrangements institutionnels sur lesquels l'organisation s'est appuyée pour maintenir son autorité. Premièrement, elle s'est efforcée de maintenir une représentation équilibrée des États, principalement entre pays développés et pays en développement. Deuxièmement, il a mis en place des mécanismes de gouvernance qui permettent aux gouvernements de jouer un rôle dans le processus d'évaluation, encourageant la “reappropriation” de ses conclusions. Troisièmement, il a procéduralisé le processus d'évaluation pour formaliser le rôle de ses différentes parties et protéger l'organisation contre les critiques. Quatrièmement, il est plus attentif à la gestion de la communication. Ces arrangements sont régulièrement renégociés dans le contexte de nouveaux défis et controverses. Au-delà du GIEC, ils offrent de nouvelles perspectives pour observer l'imbrication de l'autorité politique et épistémique. / In the last decades, international expertise has been essential to put global environmental problems on the international agenda. These assessments are often contested, especially on issues where facts and values are profoundly entangled. This thesis investigates the case of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), one of the most authoritative, albeit contested expert organisation. It is more generally interested in how these organisations construct and maintain their authority, drawing on insights from Science and Technology Studies and sociological approaches to international organisations. A central argument is that, partly as a result of the controversial universe in which it has evolved, the IPCC has grown into an international bureaucracy. The thesis identifies four institutional arrangements on which the organisation has relied to maintain its authority. First, it has strived for a balanced representation of all nations, and in particular between developed and developing countries. Second, it has put in place governing mechanisms that allow governments to play a central role in the assessment process, encouraging the ‘ownership’ of its conclusions. Third, it has increasingly proceduralised the assessment, to formalise the role of its different parts and protect the organisation against criticism. Four, it has been more attentive to the management of the information displayed about its work. These arrangements are regularly renegotiated in the context of new challenges and controversies. Beyond the IPCC, they provide relevant lenses to observe the intertwining of political and epistemic authority at the international level.

<p>The IPCCand the FCCC are both central institutions in the international handling of the climate change issue. How these institutions frame and define the climate change issue is decisive for the action taken in response. The aim of this thesis was to analyze and describe how the climate change problem is framed and defined within the FCCC and the IPCC. Furthermore, the aim was also to examine if there are any differences between the IPCC’s and the FCCC’s framings and definitions of the climate change problem, and if so, what those differences consist of. The analysis was based on a line of documents from the IPCC and the FCCC, which were analyzed through a qualitative textual analysis. </p><p>The results of the analysis indicate that there are both similarities and dissimilarities between the institutions. The definitions of the term climate change differ in the sense that the FCCC only regards human-induced changes in climate, as climate change. The IPCC, on the other hand, includes both natural variability and human-induced changes in its definition of climate change. In the practical usage the definitions are similar, and the results indicate that the IPCC in practice has adopted the FCCC’s definition and only focuses on anthropogenic climate change. The climate change issue is by both of the institutions perceived as a greenhouse gas question, and the consequences are described as very extensive and serious. The FCCC gives advantages to mitigative responses in relation to adaptive, and also the IPCC describes mitigative responses as advantageous. Finally, the study indicates that there is a linking between the scientific and political spheres, which is extended by the fact that the FCCC’s definition of climate change creates a demand for scientific input in the decision-making process. The science and policy relationship builds upon mutual expectations of what the respective spheres can contribute with in terms of useful knowledge and policy-relevant questions.</p>

<p>This essay aims to research the climate change issue and the relationship social movements, scientist and policymakers have to climate change. Furthermore, this essay has a didactic perspective and aim to illuminate how the climate change issue can be used within the school subject social studies. The policy decided upon by the world leaders during the climate summit in Copenhagen, Cop15, will stand further from the scientific view of climate change in relation to sustainable development than what the social movements’ demands are. To find the relationship a case study have been made, where an observation at the alternative forum Klimaforum09 was made to establish what relationship social movements have with policymakers and scientists. A close reading of the IPCC <em>Synthesis Report (AR4)</em> was made to see the scientific view on climate change and the relationship to policymakers and social movements. The relationship policymakers have with science and social movements have not been researched, since the Cop15 did not result in a global deal. Despite that there was no deal the thesis have been investigated, and the result is that social movements have a close, but critical relationship towards both world leaders and politicians, and to the scientific view of climate change. It is also suggested that science have a relationship to social movements. The thesis cannot be refuted or confirmed.</p>

This essay aims to research the climate change issue and the relationship social movements, scientist and policymakers have to climate change. Furthermore, this essay has a didactic perspective and aim to illuminate how the climate change issue can be used within the school subject social studies. The policy decided upon by the world leaders during the climate summit in Copenhagen, Cop15, will stand further from the scientific view of climate change in relation to sustainable development than what the social movements’ demands are. To find the relationship a case study have been made, where an observation at the alternative forum Klimaforum09 was made to establish what relationship social movements have with policymakers and scientists. A close reading of the IPCC Synthesis Report (AR4) was made to see the scientific view on climate change and the relationship to policymakers and social movements. The relationship policymakers have with science and social movements have not been researched, since the Cop15 did not result in a global deal. Despite that there was no deal the thesis have been investigated, and the result is that social movements have a close, but critical relationship towards both world leaders and politicians, and to the scientific view of climate change. It is also suggested that science have a relationship to social movements. The thesis cannot be refuted or confirmed.