Chacune des éditions de la Critique de la raison pure contient une preuve de la réalité du monde externe : la première se trouve dans le « quatrième paralogisme » et la deuxième dans la « Réfutation de l’idéalisme ». Ce travail examine l’évolution du premier argument vers le deuxième, en rendant compte de deux critiques importantes de la première édition qui ont influencé le second travail de Kant. La deuxième partie de ce travail se concentre sur des problèmes propres à la Réfutation, où sont traités des sujets particulièrement problématiques, tel que la structure de la conscience empirique déterminée, le rôle du permanent dans l’établissement de l’objectivité, ainsi qu’un argument secondaire présenté dans les notes de bas de page du texte principal et de la préface. / Each edition of the Critique of Pure Reason contains a proof for the reality of the external world: the first is located in the “Fourth Paralogism”, the second, in the “Refutation of Idealism.” This work examines the evolution from the first argument to the second, taking into account two significant criticisms of the first edition which influenced Kant’s second attempt. The latter half of this work treats topics particular to the Refutation only, focusing again on the issues which were stumbling blocks, namely the structure of determined empirical consciousness, the role of the permanent in establishing objectivity, as well as a secondary argument found in the footnotes of the main text and preface.

Dans une communication exolingue, les échecs pragmatiques ne sont pas aussi aisément reconnaissables que les erreurs grammaticales ou phonétiques et de ce fait, ils risquent de mener à des malentendus sans qu’il y ait de tentative de réparation. Comment identifier et expliquer ces difficultés pragmatiques aux apprenants ? Quels sont les moyens possibles pour la transmission du savoir pragmatique ? Cette étude vise à répondre à ces questions en coordonnant, d’une part, les problèmes rencontrés dans les interactions réelles entre Français et Japonais et, d’autre part, ceux qui apparaissent dans les situations d’enseignement du français langue étrangère au Japon. Autour de deux actes de parole (l’excuse et de la réfutation), les différences entre Français et Japonais sont examinées à l’appui de corpus variés : témoignages écrits (livres et blogs) des personnes ayant connu les deux cultures, ouvrages de savoir-vivre ou encore, extraits de films. L’étude se tourne ensuite vers les trois composantes de l’enseignement : le manuel, l’enseignant et l’apprenant. Après une analyse des manuels de français langue étrangère édités au Japon, le travail a été enrichi par des entretiens avec des enseignantes, ainsi que par des questionnaires menés auprès d’apprenants japonais. Cette étude a permis de mettre à jour les possibilités et les difficultés de l’enseignement de la pragmatique, telles que le maniement des stéréotypes, les différences entre enseignant natif et non-natif ou encore la capacité d’observation chez les apprenants même débutants. / In communication between native and non-native speakers, pragmatic failures are not as easily recognizable as grammatical or phonetic errors, and therefore, they risk to lead to misunderstandings; generally speakers have no chance to repair ommunication problems. How do foreign language teachers identify and explain these pragmatic difficulties to the learners ? What are the possible means to teach pragmatics ? This study aims at answering these questions by associating the problems in the real interactions between French and Japanese speakers and those in the situations of teaching French as a foreign language in Japan. Concerning two speech acts (apology and refutation), the differences between French and Japanese are examined using various corpuses: books and blogs written by those who experienced both cultures, French and Japanese literature on manners and etiquette, and some sequences from movies. The study then deals with the three components of education : the textbook, the teacher and the learner. After an analysis of French textbooks published in Japan, interviews were conducted with teachers of French, and questionnaires were administered to Japanese learners. This study made clear the possibilities and the difficulties of teaching pragmatics, such as the way of incorporating stereotypes, the differences between native and non-native teachers, and the learners’ ability to be aware of pragmatic features even at beginner level.

This thesis deals with the polyphonic and argumentative functions of the French negation marker, ne, in editorial texts from the daily press. The concept ‘polyphony’ relates to the presence of multiple voices within one and the same utterance. According to this view, negation triggers a subdivision of an utterance in two points of view. Thus the sentence Sweden will not be a part of the monetary union can be divided in two points of view, the underlying ‘Sweden will be a part of the monetary union’, and the explicit ‘Sweden will not be a part of the monetary union’. First, I study the polyphonic structure of negative utterances, notably their division in two points of view, by taking into account their specific linguistic features. This is done so as to identify the relevant linguistic criteria that determine the polyphonic interpretation of the negation. The study demonstrates that contextual elements, including pragmatic connectors, presuppositions contrastive elements, and several other devices constitute the primary source of polyphonic markers. Negation is furthermore approached from a textual perspective. I explore how the two opposite points of view that are associated with negation form polyphonic sequences with other points of view carrying the same semantic content, and how these dynamic points of view are associated to the different discourse beings that are found in the newspaper article. I found that these sequences often embrace the central polemic theme of the article and, also, that the polyphonic function is not restricted to the negative utterance but constitutes an element that ensures textual and argumentative coherence. These two analyses are carried out within Jean-Claude Anscombre’s and Oswald Ducrot’s Theory of Structural Argumentation, which has recently been formalised by Kjersti Fløttum, Coco Norén and Henning Nølke. Finally in this thesis, I analyse the relation between the discourse beings associated with the negative utterance and real beings that exist outside the text, and then consider what rhetorical implications that correspondence or no correspondence has on the polyphonic interpretation of the negation. I also examine whether polyphonic negation can be considered to be a feature of newspaper editorials that identifies these texts as a genre. This study shows that the locuteur, the discourse being responsible for the enunciation of the negative utterance on a textual level, links to the real being, the editorial writer, who then refutes points of view associated to other discourse beings, often by use of nominalizations that refer to community voices. The locuteur also intrudes into an argument or claim, and refutes it in the name of a community or an authority. By defining genre, as does the media researcher Patrick Charaudeau, as a correspondence between the constraints imposed by the discursive situation and the constraints imposed by the discursive features, and by considering that one of the editorial’s constraints is to persuade its readers, this study shows that the phrasal negation ne in its polyphonic function, constitutes a distinguishing feature in the genre of editorials. The refutations that are made by an editor constitute a distinctive argumentative strategy since it permits the editorial writer to present external points of view in order to refute them and thereby impose his or her own, subjective point of view.

Cette étude porte sur la réfutation (elenchos) dans la République de Platon, et montre que la présence de cette méthode au livre I ne saurait être un signe de la rédaction antérieure de ce livre, ni de la volonté de Platon de critiquer cette forme de la dialectique. Les deux premiers chapitres traitent de l'aspect épistémologique de la question : le premier montre que l'exposition de la dialectique au livre VII inclut l'elenchos, et le second que la défaillance des arguments du livre I doit être interprétée par des motifs pédagogiques, et non par une intention satirique de l'auteur. Les deux derniers chapitres se penchent sur la dimension morale de l'elenchos. Ainsi, le troisième chapitre affirme que Platon nous présente, au livre I, l'elenchos comme un outil efficace d'éducation morale, tandis que le quatrième chapitre cherche à expliquer la critique morale de l'elenchos du livre VII par la différence entre l'éducation dans une cité parfaite et celle dans une société corrompue. La conclusion de l'ouvrage explique le délaissement de la méthode élenctique dans les neuf derniers livres de la République par des raisons autres que par la perte de confiance de Platon en les capacités de cette méthode. / This study is about refutation (elenchus) in Plato's Republic. I claim that Socrates' use of this method in Book I cannot be considered evidence that the text belongs to an earlier draft of this book, nor of an implicit critique of the elenctic method by Plato. My first chapter shows that the dialectic described in Book VII actually includes the elenchus. The second chapter studies the arguments of Book I and shows that their many flaws should be interpreted in term of Plato's pedagogical motives, and do not suggest that he intended to write a satire. Chapter three shows that, far from criticizing Socrates' method on moral grounds, Book I actually presents the elenchus as a successful tool for moral education. Chapter four explains the moral criticism of the elenchus in Book VII by contrasting education in a perfect city with Socrates' education of already-corrupted men. I conclude by explaining why the Republic's main books do not make use of refutation.

Chacune des éditions de la Critique de la raison pure contient une preuve de la réalité du monde externe : la première se trouve dans le « quatrième paralogisme » et la deuxième dans la « Réfutation de l’idéalisme ». Ce travail examine l’évolution du premier argument vers le deuxième, en rendant compte de deux critiques importantes de la première édition qui ont influencé le second travail de Kant. La deuxième partie de ce travail se concentre sur des problèmes propres à la Réfutation, où sont traités des sujets particulièrement problématiques, tel que la structure de la conscience empirique déterminée, le rôle du permanent dans l’établissement de l’objectivité, ainsi qu’un argument secondaire présenté dans les notes de bas de page du texte principal et de la préface. / Each edition of the Critique of Pure Reason contains a proof for the reality of the external world: the first is located in the “Fourth Paralogism”, the second, in the “Refutation of Idealism.” This work examines the evolution from the first argument to the second, taking into account two significant criticisms of the first edition which influenced Kant’s second attempt. The latter half of this work treats topics particular to the Refutation only, focusing again on the issues which were stumbling blocks, namely the structure of determined empirical consciousness, the role of the permanent in establishing objectivity, as well as a secondary argument found in the footnotes of the main text and preface.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Considerando o teor argumentativo do discurso acadÃmico, a refutaÃÃo configura-se como um procedimento imprescindÃvel, jà que a argumentaÃÃo pressupÃe o desacordo, o debate e, portanto, a refutaÃÃo, que, por sua vez, constitui-se na oposiÃÃo, no desacordo, necessÃrios à argumentaÃÃo. Sob uma abordagem enunciativa, à possÃvel correlacionar concessÃo/refutaÃÃo, jà que duas propriedades da concessÃo podem ser identificadas: a ideia de oposiÃÃo entre duas conclusÃes (r e nÃo-r); e a ideia de uma relaÃÃo hierÃrquica entre os conteÃdos valendo como argumentos para essas conclusÃes. Tendo em vista a estrutura composicional prototÃpica da refutaÃÃo (asserÃÃo prÃvia/recusa/justificativa) e a correlaÃÃo concessÃo/refutaÃÃo, buscamos, nesta pesquisa, identificar propriedades definidoras da refutaÃÃo no discurso acadÃmico. Para tanto, levantamos a seguinte questÃo: o que a refutaÃÃo manifestada em introduÃÃes de teses de doutorado da Ãrea de linguÃstica tem de peculiar que nos informa que os autores constroem seus textos da forma como constroem? O corpus à composto por oitenta introduÃÃes de teses de doutorado de dezesseis programas de pÃs-graduaÃÃo da Ãrea de linguÃstica. Para a coleta dos dados, procedemos a um recorte, com a seleÃÃo dos trechos constitutivos de atos de linguagem de refutaÃÃo, os quais se materializam por meio da articulaÃÃo dos elementos negativo e argumentativo. Assumimos os postulados teÃricos de Moeschler (1982), Moeschler e Spengler (1982) e Ducrot (1981, 1987). Para a anÃlise, definimos as seguintes categorias: estrutura composicional prototÃpica, marcas indicativas de recusa e efeitos de sentido. Aplicamos um modelo prototÃpico, organizado a partir dos estudos de Moeschler (1982) e de Moeschler e Spengler (1982), acrescido de elementos encadeadores e ratificadores da refutaÃÃo. TambÃm procedemos à identificaÃÃo das marcas instauradoras de oposiÃÃo e das vozes que emergem das estratÃgias refutativas para analisar os efeitos de sentido oriundos de tais vozes, por meio da polifonia linguÃstica (DUCROT, 1987). Os resultados ratificam a estrutura asserÃÃo prÃvia/recusa/justificativa, mas apontam tambÃm para uma configuraÃÃo com elementos que se solidarizam em um exercÃcio constante de encadear e ratificar o dito. A recusa à asserÃÃo prÃvia se manifesta a partir da combinaÃÃo de diferentes formas linguÃsticas, contudo, marcas que resultam em estratÃgias concessivas sÃo de uso mais frequente. A anÃlise polifÃnica dos efeitos de sentido permite a identificaÃÃo dos enunciadores colocados em cena pelo locutor, bem como do posicionamento do locutor diante desses enunciadores. / Considering the argumentative content of academic discourse, the refutation is an indispensable procedure, since the argumentation presupposes disacord, debate and therefore the refutation, which constitutes opposition, disacord, necessary, therefore, for the argumentation. Under an enunciative approach, it is possible to correlate concession/ refutation, since two concession properties can be identified: the idea of opposition between two conclusions (r and non-r); the idea of a hierarchical relation between the contents as arguments for these conclusions. Given the prototypical compositional structure of the refutation (assertion/refuse/justification) and the concession/refutation correlation, we seek, in this research, to identify defining properties of refutation in academic discourse. To that end, we raise the following question: what the refutation manifested in introductions of doctoral theses of the area of linguistics has of peculiar that tells us that the authors construct their texts the way they construct? The corpus consists of eighty introductions of doctoral theses from sixteen postgraduate programs of the area of linguistics. For the data collection, we proceed to a cut, with the selection of the passages constitutive of acts of language of refutation, which are materialized through the articulation of the negative and argumentative elements. We assume the theoretical postulates of Moeschler (1982), Moeschler and Spengler (1982) and Ducrot (1981, 1987). For the analysis, we define the following categories: prototypical compositional structure, marks of refuse and effects of sense. We apply a prototypical model, organized from the studies of Moeschler (1982) and Moeschler and Spengler (1982), with elements linkers and ratifiers of refutation. We also identify oppositional marks and voices that emerge from refutative strategies to analyze the effects of sense of such voices through linguistic polyphony (DUCROT, 1987). The results confirm the assertion/refuse/justification structure, but they also point to a configuration with elements that show solidarity in a constant exercise of chaining and ratifying of the refutation. Denial of prior assertion manifests itself from the combination of different linguistic forms, however, marks that result in concessive strategies are more frequently used. The polyphonic analysis of the effects of sense allows the identification of the enunciators placed on the scene

Magister Artium - MA / This study aims to explore the family environment of non-admitting sex offenders in order to gain insight into the family characteristics that could be contributing factors towards the behaviour of denial. However, the focus will not be on the families of the sex offenders, but rather on the non-admitting sex offenders’ views of their family environment. The theoretical framework used is the Social Learning Theory, because it supports the fact that most behaviour is learned through modelling the behaviour of others. The researcher used a qualitative approach and the aim of the study was to generate information that would describe the family environment of non-admitting sex offenders. The population of this study was incarcerated, sentenced sex offenders with specific focus on the non-admitting sex offender as the unit of analysis. Ten (10) participants were purposively selected for the study and semi-structured interviews were conducted with each one in order to generate the needed information for the study

No description available.

De nos jours, différentes ressources littéraires de vulgarisation scientifique (VS), notamment la littérature jeunesse, sont utilisées pour aborder des contenus scientifiques en classe de primaire. Sans tenter de se substituer aux manuels scolaires, ces outils d’éducation non formels proposent différents textes narratifs et informatifs qui présentent des concepts scientifiques. En plus de développer la curiosité scientifique, la littérature jeunesse propose souvent des textes scientifiques d’une grande qualité. Néanmoins, son utilisation n’est pas exempte de difficultés. Notamment, ce type de littérature présente parfois des concepts erronés entraînant le développement de fausses conceptions. Afin d’accompagner les vulgarisateurs scientifiques dans l’élaboration de ressources de VS adaptées aux conceptions alternatives des jeunes lecteurs, et ultimement les amener à remettre en question leurs idées préconçues, nous avons identifié un dispositif didactique conçu essentiellement pour le travail en classe : le texte de réfutation. Pour tenter d’amener un changement conceptuel chez les élèves, ce texte énonce d’abord une conception alternative, puis la réfute, pour ensuite présenter l’explication scientifique du phénomène décrit. Pour donner suite à l’analyse de trois textes de réfutation, nous avons été à même d’identifier certains concepts qui sont au cœur de ce dispositif didactique, notamment la carte conceptuelle, les niveaux de formulation et la transposition didactique. Inspiré par ces concepts, nous avons élaboré un modèle didactique de VS ayant pour but d’accompagner pas à pas un vulgarisateur scientifique dans la conception de ressources adaptées au public de jeunes lecteurs. Le modèle Design Experiment nous a permis de mettre à l’essai et de bonifier cette version provisoire du modèle didactique de VS, grâce à la participation de deux vulgarisateurs scientifiques qui ont chacun élaboré deux textes de vulgarisation scientifique : l’un, des textes narratifs et l’autre, des textes informatifs, pour une cohorte de 83 élèves de cinquième année du primaire. Les sujets abordés dans ces textes sont le requin blanc, le béluga, et les muscles et l’entraînement. Pour que nous puissions étudier l’évolution des conceptions des élèves, chacun d’eux a répondu à un prétest et un posttest, et certains élèves ont également été sollicités pour participer à des entrevues de groupe avec les vulgarisateurs. Cette recherche a permis de réunir la didactique et la VS. Les vulgarisateurs ont pu mesurer la pertinence de prendre en compte les conceptions alternatives des jeunes lecteurs, tirer profit du texte de réfutation et adapter le niveau de formulation de leurs textes. / Nowadays, different literary resources of popular science, including children's literature, are used to address the scientific content in elementary classrooms. Without trying to replace textbooks, these non-formal educational tools offer different narrative and informative texts that present demonstrations of science. In addition to developing scientific curiosity, children's trade books propose scientific texts of high quality. However, these texts would not be without some level of weakness. In particular, they sometimes present erroneous concepts leading to misconceptions. To support the science writers in the popular science resource development suited to alternative conceptions of young learners, and ultimately to get them to change these conceptions, we identified a didactic text designed primarily for classroom work called refutation text. To promote conceptual change, the text first sets out an alternative design, refutes the alternative conception, and then presents scientific explanation. After the analysis of three refutation texts, we were able to identify some didactic concepts at the heart of this text pattern; the concept map, the learner’s knowledge level, and didactic transposition. Inspired by these concepts, we have developed a didactic model of popular science to accompany a science writer, step by step, in the design of appropriate resources for young readers. The Design Experiment model has allowed us to test and improve this experimental model of popular science through the participation of two science writers who each developed two popular science texts. One writer composed two narrative texts, another wrote two informative texts for a group of 83 students in fifth grade. Topics covered in these texts were white sharks, beluga whales, and muscles and training. To study the evolution of student conception, each answered pre-test and post-test questions and some students were also asked to participate in group interviews with the science writers. This research brought together didactics and popular science. Science writers were able to measure the relevance of taking into account the views of young readers’ conceptions, the use of refutation text, and the adaptation of the texts to learner’s knowledge level.

L'intérêt de l'humanité pour la connaissance se joue sur deux fronts : celui de la réduction de l'ignorance, et celui de l'action tant individuelle que collective. Aussi la manière dont nous acquérons le savoir est-elle essentielle, parce qu'elle préjuge aussi bien de notre perception du monde que de notre conscience de nous-mêmes et de la société. Car si, avec la raison comme alliée, l'homme se découvre des potentialités illimitées, nous aurions pourtant tort de passe outre une stricte réalité, celle de notre ignorance infinie, celle, au fond, de notre incapacité à cerner, de façon sûre et certaine, quoi que ce soit de ce monde complexe et en évolution constante qui nous accueille. C'est pourquoi, pour Karl Popper, toute rationalité véritable doit être critique, c'est-à-dire pluraliste et débattante, seule façon de considérer objectivement l'écart qui nous sépare de la vérité et, par suite, d'agir avec prudence et discernement, dans l'intérêt de la science comme dans celui de la collectivité. / Our interest for knowledge is based on two essential principles : the first one aims at reducing ignorance while the second one emphasizes individual and collective actions. So, the way we acquire knowledge is essential as it foresees at the same time our perception of the world as well as our being aware of our existence and that of the society as a whole. Indeed, if the Man uses reason his ally, he will discover unlimited potentialities, then we will be mistaken in not taking in consideration this strict reality of our unlimited ignorance, the one that, in reality, anf from the bottom of our not being able to certainly and surely encircle anything in this fast-growing world that dewells us. That is why Karl Popper, any real rationality has to be critical, it means pluralist and debating. That is the only way to separate the gap between us and the truth, and then, lead us to act with caution and discernment ib the interest of science and in the interest of the community.