This study aims to explore Swedish upper secondary students’ attitudes toward first language (L1) use in a second language (L2) English learning environment. In addition, it aims to explore the functions of L1 use. Through a qualitative approach with both observations and interviews, a pattern of L1 use was noticed. The results corroborate prior research on student attitudes and show that students are positive toward L1 use. Swedish students tend to use their L1 through translanguaging and codeswitching as a tool for understanding, and as a way to establish relationships. In other words, L1 use needs to be considered a natural part of their L2 learning environment, even though they also understand the importance of exposure to and use of English in the classroom in order to become proficient in it. The students’ attitudes thus challenge the monolingual approach that is predominantly used in Swedish upper secondary schools today.

Unaccompanied youth are migrant children who travel by themselves to the United States, mostly from Central America and Mexico. Since 2014, more than 200,000 unaccompanied youth have entered the United States, with approximately 28,000 residing in Los Angeles, California (U.S. Customs and Border Protection [CBP], CBP 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021a, 2021b). Hundreds of these young migrants have enrolled in public schools (Pierce, 2016). Schools seek adequate and effective ways to support these students’ complex needs and aspirations. Within the body of research about this sub-group of immigrants there is a significant absence of the voices of unaccompanied youth themselves, which results in limited knowledge and uninformed school policy responses. This study employed Critical Race Theory (CRT) as a theoretical framework and Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR) as a methodology to foreground youth agency in capturing counter-narratives that accurately depict the school experiences of unaccompanied youth who find themselves at the intersection of race, gender, immigration status, migration, and class. The questions guiding this study were: How do unaccompanied youth, in the role of youth co-researchers describe, experience, and make meaning of educación at a justice-focused high school in Los Angeles? and (b) How can the epistemology of unaccompanied youth inform practices and policies, to ensure a socially-just education, against the backdrop of an anti-immigrant climate? YPAR is built on the idea that young people have the capacity to conduct research, generate new knowledge, and create transformational social change. This research study built on the epistemology of unaccompanied youth to inform and generate affirming and emancipatory educational practices with youth as agents of knowledge creation. This study provides the field with first-hand information that can be shared in the educational community. Abstract (Spanish) Los jóvenes no acompañados son niños migrantes que viajan solos a los Estados Unidos, principalmente desde Centroamérica y México. Desde 2014, más de 200,000 jóvenes no acompañados han ingresado a los Estados Unidos, y aproximadamente 28,000 residen en Los Ángeles, California (U.S. Customs and Border Protection [CBP], CBP 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021a, 2021b). Cientos de estos jóvenes migrantes se han matriculado en escuelas públicas (Pierce, 2016). Las escuelas buscan formas adecuadas y efectivas de apoyar las complejas necesidades y aspiraciones de estos estudiantes. Dentro del cuerpo de investigación sobre este sub-grupo de inmigrantes hay una ausencia significativa de las voces de los propios jóvenes no acompañados, lo que da como resultado un conocimiento limitado y respuestas políticas escolares desinformadas. Este estudio empleó la Teoría Crítica de la Raza (CRT) como marco teórico y la Investigación de Acción Participativa Juvenil (YPAR) como una metodología para poner en primer plano la agencia juvenil en la captura de contra-narrativas que representan con precisión las experiencias escolares de los jóvenes no acompañados que se encuentran en la intersección de la raza, género, estatus migratorio, migración y clase. Las preguntas que guiaron este estudio fueron: ¿Cómo los jóvenes no acompañados, en el papel de co-investigadores jóvenes, describen, experimentan y dan sentido a la educación en una escuela secundaria centrada en la justicia social en Los Ángeles? y (b) ¿Cómo puede la epistemología de los jóvenes no acompañados informar prácticas y políticas para garantizar una educación socialmente justa, en el contexto de un clima anti-inmigrante? YPAR se basa en la idea de que los jóvenes tienen la capacidad de realizar investigaciones, generar nuevos conocimientos y generar un cambio social transformador. Esta investigación se basó en la epistemología de los jóvenes no acompañados para informar y generar prácticas educativas afirmativas y emancipadoras con los jóvenes como agentes de creación de conocimiento. Este estudio proporciona al campo información de primera mano que se puede compartir en la comunidad educativa.

<p dir="ltr">Over the past decades, language and language learning research heavily relied on an individual’s innate ability or level of proficiency rather than social aspects that influence the individual’s ability to use language. Consequently, scholars of language learning research narrowly dealt with linguistic features and/or grammar within an isolated manner like the model of universal grammar (UG) proposed by Chomsky (Chomsky, 1972; Lantolf, 1994). However, socially oriented scholars have lately criticized this limited view on language learning (Garcia & Li Wei, 2014; Norton, 1995; Pennycook, 2010). From a sociocultural perspective, language becomes meaningful within the social realm because it is deeply interconnected with the social environment. This perspective calls for a new approach to research, teach, and understand bilingualism and language learning, especially the role of a bilinguals’ home language (thereafter Heritage Language) and its use in the second language (usually English) learning process (August & Shanahan, 2010; Boyle, et, al, 2015; Garcia, 2011). In the past, bilinguals’ hybrid language practices have been considered a sign of language deficiency and/or problem attributed to the HL (Creese & Blackledge, 2010, Heller, 2006, & Wei, 2011) and overlook its contribution to learning the English language and to bilingualism. Recent scholarship in language education has deviated from the form-focused approach to the critical approach. The critical approach examines bilinguals’ hybrid language practices, translanguaging, as bilinguals’ discursive and dynamic communication to make sense of the world by drawing their full linguistic and cultural repertoires (Grosjean, 2010; Otheguy, García, & Reid, 2015).</p><p dir="ltr">This dissertation specifically examines in what ways a student’s use of two languages contributes to advancing their academic and social goals throughout their education. I analyze Korean emergent bilinguals’ language and literacy use across different contexts: public elementary school, the Korean heritage language school, home, and local churches, to understand how emergent bilingual 1st graders engage in their learning process. Drawing on a qualitative case study with four Korean emergent bilinguals, the data include over 106 hours of participant observation and transcripts of audio recordings across four contexts and interviews with students, parents, and teachers. Using thematic analysis, I code in what ways various social contexts influence bilinguals’ translanguaging practices and in what ways individual children reveal their linguistic and cultural identities in their oral and written communication. This dissertation demonstrates that bilinguals utilize a myriad of translanguaging practices to achieve various social and linguistic goals and to accommodate different social contexts.</p><p dir="ltr">In conclusion, this dissertation provides substantial contributions to language literacy education in two ways: to use translanguaging practices for communicative and linguistic purposes, and to maintain HL for English language development. First, this study supports the reconciliation of the two premises of language learning. Emergent bilinguals’ flexible use of linguistic and cultural resources demonstrates that “linguistic and cultural knowledge are constructed through each other and language-acquiring children are active and selective agents in both process” (Watson-Gegeo & Nielsen, 2003, p. 165). As discussed, translanguaging not only offers new insight into bilingual education in different learning contexts but also reveals bilinguals’ hidden language repertoires and the diverse cultural knowledge that bilinguals possess. Second, this study adds to our understanding of language maintenance in a larger society by exploring a small community of Korean emergent bilinguals in the Midwestern United States.</p>

A monolingual target language (TL) teaching norm has been promoted in second language learning over recent decades. Despite this, international studies indicate substantial variation in how and why teachers use the TL. This study investigates the extent of TL use during English lessons in Swedish classrooms in primary school, and how the choice of language correlates with teachers’ beliefs regarding second language learning (SLL) and the inclusion of the first language (L1). This study discusses the teachers’ didactic considerations and implementations of languages during their English lessons, and the teachers’ view on how the students are affected by the use of the TL in the classroom. Semi-structured interviews are carried out with three certified primary school English teachers. The interview data from this study show that the teachers’ main perception of TL use is that it should be used as much as possible. However, they all occasionally include the use of L1 in order to aid comprehension and prevent students’ anxiety. All three teachers emphasized the importance of a safe learning environment, especially when learning a new language. Even though the teachers agreed that the knowledge criterias for the subject of English in primary school do not place high demands on the students’ abilities in English, they as teachers place higher demands. The reason being that Swedish students’ level of English is higher than ever before and in turn teachers’ expectations are higher.

The purpose of this study is to explore the methods and strategies that teachers use to support language and knowledge development among multilingual students in science subjects in grades 4–6. The study also aims to understand how multilingualism can be utilized as an asset in education and to identify the challenges teachers face in their daily work. To collect data, semi-structured interviews were conducted with five teachers who have experience teaching in multilingual environments. The study is grounded in sociocultural theory, which frames the focus on classroom interactions and learning processes. The results show that teachers employ various methods to address the linguistic needs of multilingual students. However, teachers experience challenges related to the effective integration of these methods into their teaching. In summary, teachers emphasize the need to adapt teaching to the individual needs and linguistic backgrounds of students. They also highlight the importance of improving teachers' skills to effectively support multilingual students. The study demonstrates that with the right support and resources, multilingualism can serve as a strengthening resource in the classroom, contributing to a more inclusive and effective learning environment. / Syftet med denna studie är att utforska de metoder och strategier som lärare använder för att stödja språk- och kunskapsutveckling hos flerspråkiga elever i NO-ämnen i årskurs 4–6. Studien syftar även till att förstå hur flerspråkighet kan användas som en tillgång i utbildningen och identifiera de hinder som lärare möter i sitt dagliga arbete. För att samla in data har semistrukturerade intervjuer använts, där deltagarna bestod av fem lärare med erfarenhet av undervisning i flerspråkiga miljöer. Studien är förankrad i en sociokulturell teori, vilket ramar in fokus på interaktioner och lärandeprocesser i klassrummet. Resultaten visar att lärare använder olika metoder för att möta de språkliga behoven hos flerspråkiga elever. Lärarna upplever dock utmaningar relaterade till effektiv integration av dessa metoder i undervisningen. Sammanfattningsvis betonar lärarna behovet av att anpassa undervisning efter elevernas individuella behov och språkliga bakgrund. De framhåller även vikten av att förbättra lärarnas kompetens för att effektivt stödja flerspråkiga elever. Studien visar att med rätt stöd och resurser kan flerspråkighet fungera som en stärkande resurs i klassrummet som bidrar till en mer inkluderande och effektiv lärmiljö.

Ce travail, dont le titre est : Le modèle d’immersion réciproque en question : enseigner en classe bilingue à New York et à Francfort / Das Two-Way-Immersion Modell im Fokus : Zweisprachig unterrichten in New York und Frankfurt/Main, a pour objectif de répondre à la problématique suivante : comment la conceptualisation du modèle d’enseignement bilingue d’immersion réciproque influence les pratiques éducatives (didactiques et pédagogiques) des enseignants et les productions langagières des enfants, et pourquoi ? / The aim of this study, the title of which is “Focussing on the model of two-way immersion: teaching in bilingual classrooms in New York and Frankfurt on the Main”, is to provide an answer to the following question: in what ways does the conceptualisation of the bilingual model of two-way immersion affect the educational practices, both didactic and pedagogical, of teachers and the language production of children, and why is this so?

Cette thèse de doctorat porte sur la première crèche parentale bilingue anglais-français établie dans la ville de Strasbourg, France. En utilisant une approche ethnographique, cette recherche examine le lien qui existe entre la politique linguistique identifiée et les facteurs sociaux. La problématique de recherche a été formulée ainsi : comment fonctionne une structure éducative bilingue dédiée à la petite enfance du point de vue des politiques linguistiques, quelles sont les implications du choix de la politique une personne, une langue (UPUL) sur les pratiques des acteurs éducatifs et des familles au sein de la crèche en question, et quel est le lien entre le bilinguisme déclaré de la structure et le multilinguisme des familles ? Enfin l’étude des choix de langues dans un contexte tel que celui de la petite enfance apporte-t-elle une compréhension nouvelle de la notion de politique linguistique éducative ? De plus, cet effort de recherche vise à combler une lacune dans les études de LP qui, dans une certaine mesure, sont concentrées soit sur le cadre familial, soit sur le cadre de l’éducation formelle. / This doctoral thesis focuses on the first parental English-French bilingual crèche established in the multilingual city of Strasbourg, France. Using an ethnographic approach, this research looks into the relationship of language policy with social factors. With the one person, one language (OPOL) policy as this ECEC setting’s identified language policy (LP), my aim is to understand its language policy processes. Primarily informed by Spolsky’s tripartite LP conceptualisation, I seek to analyse the following: the declared language policy or what the proponents say about how they manage languages; the perceived language policy or what they believe about OPOL; and the practiced language policy or what they do and how they implement the said LP. Moreover, following Johnson (2009), I also address the multilayered dimension of LP and look at the agents, goals, processes and discourses involved in the creation of this crèche. Moreover, this research endeavour aims to address a gap in LP studies that to a certain extent have focused on either family or formal educational settings.

In a globalized world, teaching English as a second language (ESL) or English as a foreign language (EFL) requires mastery of intercultural communicative competence (ICC). Deploying ICC has many benefits, especially with teaching and learning English, because it is a preeminent necessity for intercultural communication today. In ESL and EFL contexts at college and university levels, learners and instructors interface with other learners and instructors who have various languages and cultures, so there is a need for implementing ICC, because it encourages instructors and learners to communicate effectively with others using both their native and target languages, as well as their native and target cultures. Hence, there is a need for ICC, mediational tools, such as translanguaging pedagogy, as well as use of a peer-coaching process. Also, there is a need to evaluate ICC use through various kinds of assessment, such as self-assessment (which includes self-reflection), identity assessment, formative assessment, and summative assessment. In order to find the validity of various aspects of ICC, the mediational tools, the peer-coaching process, various kinds of assessment, and self-reflection, the researcher used a mixed-method study that contained quantitative and qualitative data. The study was conducted over the summer of 2016, and the participants were graduate students in the Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) program at California State University, San Bernardino (CSUSB). This thesis validates aspects of ICC, mediational tools, and assessments, as well as the importance of self-reflection in evaluating and improving individuals’ ICC.

The dissertation Litteracitet genom interaktion [‘Literacy through Interaction’] spotlights how literacy interaction can work in the primary school’s multilinguistic environments. It investigates conversations that occur in and around teaching about writing. The study material was collected from three different schools from year zero to year three, and special focus is given to what I call literacy chains. These chains are connected by the fact that they all concern a writing assignment that every pupil must complete, which in my material involves the text types narrative, factual text and poem. During the teaching sequences that unfold, there is an interplay of literary events in connection with speech, writing and various artefacts. My main object of inquiry is the interaction that occurs in these literacy chains. The dissertation demonstrates that the teachers’ lessons with the class as a whole lead to fixed conversational patterns, with pupils asked questions that require specific responses. The conversations tend to form either a so-called IRE pattern, where the reader’s initiative for a question demands a given answer in response which is then evaluated by the teacher, or a list pattern, with the pupils filling in answers. In situations involving the whole class, persistent, determined pupils are needed to break into the teacher’s monologue. When persistence wins out, from the pupil’s perspective, pupils can contribute new aspects to these conversations. In small groups and in one-on-one conversations, there are more pupil initiatives, since conversational patterns are not as fixed or predetermined. One key finding is that multilinguistic resources are sometimes made use of even though the schoolwork is usually based on a single-language conversational norm. Yet it is clear that multilingualism is a useful resource regardless of the teacher’s language background. On several occasions, we encounter participants who together construct a multilinguistic environment where languages are interwoven. All three literacy chains provide pupils with clear templates for writing, which determine what the pupils are supposed to do. The writing template in the poem chain serves as support for their writing but is not a straitjacket. This can be compared to the template for the factual text, which includes a copy of the model text. The written language norm of writing properly is communicated in great detail by the teachers to the pupils. Writing properly is not just having good, legible handwriting, but in school the writing norms to be applied in writing assignments are made relevant. On a more general level, the study illustrates that material resources vary in the schools, from green chalkboards to classroom resources that include laptops. However, schoolwork is predicated on paper-based writing. There is built-in stress, since schoolwork is governed by time, with a schedule that determines learning activities down to the minute, with them ending at a precise time. There is a race against time. / Avhandlingen belyser hur litteracitetsinteraktion kan gå till i grundskolans flerspråkiga miljöer. Det handlar om samtal som uppstår i och kring skrivundervisning. Undersökningsmaterialet är insamlat från tre olika skolor inom skolår F-3, och i det materialet är det särskilt det som jag kallar litteracitetskedjor som uppmärksammas. Kedjorna hålls samman av att de berör en gemensam skrivuppgift, som i mitt material handlar om texttyperna berättelse, faktatext och dikt. I de undervisningsförlopp som uppstår samsas litteracitetshändelser knutna till tal, skrift och olika artefakter. Mitt huvudsakliga analysobjekt är interaktionen som uppstår inom litteracitetskedjorna. Avhandlingen visar att lärarnas genomgångar i helklass leder till fasta samtalsmönster genom att de ställer frågor till eleverna som kräver bestämda svar. Samtalen tenderar att bygga antingen på s.k. IRE-mönster, där läsarens frågeinitiativ pockar på ett givet svar som respons, vilket sedan evalueras av läraren, eller på ett listmönster, där elever fyller i svar. I helklassituationer krävs det envisa och målmedvetna elever för att bryta igenom lärarmonologen. Genom att trägen vinner, ur elevperspektiv, kan eleverna bidra med nya aspekter till samtalen. I smågrupper och samtal en mot en förekommer fler elevinitiativ, eftersom samtalsmönstren inte är så fasta och förutbestämda. Ett viktigt resultat är att flerspråkiga resurser ibland tas i bruk, även om skolarbetet oftast bygger på en enspråkig samtalsnorm. Men det är tydligt att flerspråkighet är en användbar resurs oavsett lärarens språkbakgrund. Vi möter vid några tillfällen deltagare som tillsammans konstruerar en flerspråkig miljö där språken flätas ihop. Alla tre litteracitetskedjorna erbjuder elever tydliga skrivmallar, vilket reglerar vad eleverna ska göra. Skrivmallen i diktkedjan fungerar som ett stöd för skrivandet, men ingen tvångströja. Att jämföra med faktatexten där det sker en avskrift av modelltexten. Skriftspråksnormen att skriva fint förmedlas nogsamt av lärarna till eleverna. Skriva fint är inte bara att ha en fin och läsduglig handstil, utan i skolan relevantgörs de normer för skrift som ska tillämpas i skrivuppgifter. På ett mer allmänt plan illustrerar undersökningen att materiella resurser varierar i skolorna från den gröna krittavlan till klassuppsättningar med laptoppar. Skolan stöder sig dock på en pappersbaserad skriftlighet. Det finns en inbyggd stress, för skolarbete är reglerat av tid. Skolan regleras av ett minutbundet tidsschema och de lärande aktiviteterna klipps av utifrån exakta klockslag. Det pågår en kapplöpning med tiden.

Föreliggande studie är en systematisk analys av språkväxlingen i den samtida diktsamling Läppstifterska, skriven av Fredrik Ekelund/Marisol M. Språkväxlingens form och funktioner samt samspel med textinnehåll står i fokus och är också de komponenter analysen syftar till att belysa. För analysen används Haapamäkis och Erikssons (2017) analysmodell för flerspråkig litteratur. Analysresultatet visar hur språkväxlingen i Ekelunds/M:s dikter genomgående är manifest till sin form, men varierar i fråga om frekvens samt hur den markeras och integreras i texten. Formaspekterna har dessutom tydliga samband med textinnehållet – frekvensen ökar då flerspråkiga miljöer skildras, och markeringar används för att betona det som ska förmedlas. Språkväxlingens funktioner är flera och samtliga bildas av växlingen i sig kombinerat med dess form. Studien visar att de främsta funktionerna med språkväxlingen i verket är att autentiskt skildra flerspråkiga situationer, att skapa den språkligt tillåtande stämning som präglar verket, samt att bygga ett poetiskt språk i vilket ordlekar och mångtydighet bidrar till att förmedla diktsamlingens centrala transtema.