Cette thèse se concentre sur le lien entre la politique sur le changement climatique, le commerce international et la compétitivité pour les industries exposées au commerce à forte intensité énergétique (EITE). En particulier, elle explore la question: la politique climatique peut-elle être conçue de telle sorte que les décideurs politiques puissent dissiper l'inquiétude que toute tentative sérieuse de décarbonation des secteurs EITE conduise à des résultats pervers de délocalisation de la production et des émissions EITE (les « fuites de carbone »)? La thèse aborde cette question en s'appuyant notamment sur les dix années d'expérience de l'UE en matière de tarification du carbone en tant qu'instrument dominant de décarbonation des secteurs EITEs. Ceci est fait en deux étapes. Premièrement, en évaluant empiriquement les solutions politiques existantes de l'UE et en se demandant si les politiques répondent finalement aux critères fondamentaux d'efficacité environnementale, d'efficacité économique et de cohérence des politiques par rapport aux objectifs à long terme de l'atténuation climatique de l'UE. Un certain nombre de lacunes et d'incohérences importantes dans les politiques sont identifiées de cette manière, elles-mêmes intéressantes et pertinentes par rapport aux paramètres politiques actuels. Deuxièmement, cette thèse prend du recul et remet en cause l'idée que le cadre politique global de l'UE- en particulier le rôle dominant du marché du carbone EU ETS - est suffisant pour décarboner ces secteurs à plus long terme. / This thesis focuses on the nexus between climate change policy, international trade and competitiveness for energy-intensive trade-exposed industries (EITEs). In particular, it explores the question: Can climate policy be designed such that policy makers can do away with the concern that any serious attempt to decarbonise EITE sectors will lead to perverse results of offshoring of EITE production and emissions – a phenomenon known as “carbon leakage”? The thesis approaches this question by drawingin particular on the 10 years of experience of the EU with carbon pricing as the dominant tool for decarbonising EITE sectors. This is done in two steps. Firstly, by empirically evaluating existing EU policy solutions and asking whether the policies ultimately meet basic criteria for environmental effectiveness, economic efficiency, and policy coherence with respect to the long-term goals of EU climate mitigation. A number of important policy gaps and incoherencies are identified in this way that are of themselves interesting and of relevant to current policy settings. Secondly, this thesis takes a step back and questions and ultimately challenges the idea that the overarching policy framework of the EU– in particular the dominant role of the EU ETS carbon market – is sufficient for decarbonising these sectors in the longer term.

The goal of this diploma thesis was to create a comprehensive overview of the recent devel-opment in the fight against the climate change in European Union and complement it with evidence on how the CO2 reduction measures impacted the energy industry. Firstly, the ener-gy industry of the European Union is introduced with its basic characteristics. Information on the climate change and on actions that have been established so far in order to fight the cli-mate change is also provided. Next, the theoretical knowledge from the environmental eco-nomics is presented together with the various concepts on how to address the issues connected with the externalities. EU ETS and renewable energy subsidies (FiTs) are further analyzed and practical insights on how the measures work are also offered. The practical part contributes with analyses of case studies of Germany and Czech Republic, in which the key success factors of the policies and their impact are assessed.

Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht wie rationale Entscheidungsfindungen in Transformationsländern katalysiert werden können, indem durch den Fokus auf die internationale Wertschöpfungskette Synergieeffekte zwischen den Unternehmen genutzt und in deren Folge die Transaktionskosten, für Investitionsentscheidungen in energieeffiziente Technologien und Prozesse zur Erfüllung der Emissionsreduktionen, gesenkt werden können. Es wird das Wirken der Marktmechanismen analysiert und der Fokus auf die Transformationstheorie sowie die Ingenieurwissenschaften gelegt. Das Supply Chain Management, als anwendungsorientierte Realwissenschaft mit expliziter Ausrichtung auf Wertschöpfungsprozesse, wird in Bezug auf strategische Investitionsentscheidungen im Allgemeinen und Investitionen in Energieeffizienzmaßnahmen im Speziellen, weiterentwickelt. Mit Hilfe einer empirisch basierten Fallstudie werden die abgeleiteten Erkenntnisse einer kritischen Prüfung unterzogen und beispielhaft dargestellt, wie das entwickelte Entscheidungsmodell eingesetzt werden kann.:Inhaltsverzeichnis Geleitwort ................................................................................................................ III Danksagung ............................................................................................................ IV Inhaltsverzeichnis ...................................................................................................... V Formelverzeichnis .................................................................................................... XI Abkürzungsverzeichnis............................................................................................. XII Teil A Konzeption der Arbeit...................................................................................... 16 1 Einführung – Integrierte Klima- und Energiepolitik und Entscheidungstheorie .. 16 2 Problemstellung...................................................................................... 25 3 Zielsetzung der Arbeit.............................................................................. 27 4 Wissenschaftstheoretische Fundierung und Methodischer Aufbau der Arbeit .. 30 4.1 Zur wissenschaftlichen Fundierung der Arbeit ................................................... 30 4.2 Aufbau der Arbeit und Beitrag zum wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnisfortschritt .......... 34 Teil B Theoretischer Bezugsrahmen........................................................................... 40 5 Basale Begriffe und Definitionen ............................................................... 40 5.1 Kohlenstoffdioxid und andere Treibhausgase .................................................... 40 5.2 Der Effizienzbegriff ........................................................................................ 44 5.3 Energie-Effizienz-Indikatoren .......................................................................... 47 5.4 Unternehmensrelevante Normen..................................................................... 52 5.5 Theoretischer Ansatz des Supply Chain Managements ...................................... 55 5.6 Transformationsländer und Systemtransformation ............................................. 62 5.6.1 Zum Begriff des Transformationslandes ..................................................... 62 5.6.2 Ökonomische Systemtransformation in Transformationsländern.................... 66 5.6.3 Bedeutung der Energieeffizienz in der polnischen Industrie im Rahmen des Transformationsprozesses ....................................................................... 71 5.6.4 Die Industrie Rumäniens unter energetischem Gesichtspunkt ....................... 74 5.7 Transaktionskostentheorie.............................................................................. 78 5.7.1 Die Transaktionskostentheorie im Rahmen der Neuen Institutionentheorie ..... 78 5.7.2 Transaktionskosten im Rahmen des Emissionshandels................................ 83 5.8 System -und Entscheidungstheorie.................................................................. 85 5.8.1 Grundlagen der System– und Entscheidungstheorie.................................... 85 5.8.2 Betriebswirtschaftliche Entscheidungstheorie.............................................. 90 5.8.2.1 Zum Problembegriff....................................................................................90 5.8.2.2 Alternativenkonfiguration............................................................................92 5.8.2.3 Präferenzmodellierung ...............................................................................94 5.8.3 Unternehmenspolitische Entscheidungsansätze.......................................... 96 5.8.3.1 Argumentenbilanz ......................................................................................96 5.8.3.2 Nutzwertanalyse.........................................................................................97 5.8.3.3 Portfolioanalyse..........................................................................................99 VI 5.8.4 Die Entscheidungsorientierte Betriebswirtschaftslehre................................ 102 5.8.5 Modellklassen ...................................................................................... 109 5.8.6 Entscheidungsregeln............................................................................. 112 5.8.6.1 Entscheidungsregeln bei Unsicherheit .....................................................116 5.8.6.1.1 Minimax-Entscheidungsregel.............................................................116 5.8.6.1.2 Maximax- Entscheidungsregel...........................................................116 5.8.6.1.3 Hurwicz-Entscheidungsregel (Pessimissmus-Optimismus-Regel) .....117 5.8.6.1.4 Savage-Niehans-Entscheidungsregel................................................118 5.8.6.1.5 Laplace-Entscheidungsregel .............................................................119 5.8.6.2 Entscheidungsregeln bei Risiko ...............................................................121 5.8.6.2.1 Erwartungswert-Regel .......................................................................121 5.8.6.2.2 μ -σ -Regel.......................................................................................121 5.8.6.2.3 Bernoulli-Regel..................................................................................122 5.8.6.2.4 Entscheidungsbaum..........................................................................123 5.8.7 Anforderungen an ein Entscheidungsmodell ............................................. 125 Teil C Energieeffizienzstrategien: Europäische Union versus Transformationsländer ...... 128 6 Integrierte Ansätze zur Energieeffizienzsteigerung in Transformationsländern128 6.1 Emissionshandel als marktorientierter Mechanismus zur Effizienzerhöhung ........ 128 6.2 Ordnungspolitik versus Marktmechanismen – Kohlenstoffdioxidsteuer und Handel mit Emissionsrechten............................................................................................... 131 6.3 Die flexiblen Mechanismen des Kyoto -Protokolls ............................................ 136 6.3.1 Clean development mechanism.............................................................. 141 6.3.2 Joint Implementation ............................................................................. 143 6.4 Unternehmensstrategien unter cap – and trade Regulierung ............................. 152 Teil D Energieeffizienzinvestitionen entlang der Wertschöpfungskette........................... 156 7 Herausarbeitung des Handlungsbedarfes für Investitionen in Energieeffizienztechnologien – das ENEFFTECH-Entscheidungsmodell ....................... 156 7.1 Anforderungen an das ENEFFTECH-Entscheidungsmodell............................... 156 7.2 Das ENEFFTECH-Strukturmodell .................................................................. 157 7.3 Datenmodellierung im ENEFFTECH-Strukturmodell......................................... 158 7.3.1 Grundsätze der Datenmodellierung im ENEFFTECH-Strukturmodell............ 158 7.3.2 Informationsarchitektur und Prozessgestaltung für Strategisches Supply Chain Management ........................................................................................ 160 7.3.3 Datenmodell – Informationsebene ........................................................... 166 7.3.4 Datenmodell - Datenerfassungebene....................................................... 169 7.3.5 Datenmodell - Entscheidungsebene ........................................................ 171 7.3.5.1 Vorgaben zur Berechnung........................................................................171 7.3.5.2 Investitionsalternativen.............................................................................172 7.3.5.3 Umweltzustände.......................................................................................173 7.4 Abgrenzung von Bilanzräumen...................................................................... 174 7.5 Formulierung des Entscheidungsproblems...................................................... 178 7.6 Identifizierung von Handlungsalternativen auf Unternehmensebene ................... 183 7.7 Ableitung von Aussagen auf Branchenebene .................................................. 190 VII 7.7.1 Mikro-Makro-Link (MML) ........................................................................ 190 7.7.2 Erfassung relevanter Daten zur Ableitung von Branchenaussagen............... 194 7.7.3 Erweiterung des Ansatzes auf Emissionsreduzierende Energieeffizienzsteigerung ..................................................................... 199 7.7.4 Bewertung des ENEFFTECH-Entscheidungsmodell und Vergleich mit anderen Entscheidungsmethoden........................................................................ 203 8 Modelltest: Fallstudie zum ENEFFTECH-Entscheidungsmodell ................... 205 8.1 Energieeffizienzinvestionen entlang der Supply Chain am Beispiel eines mittelständischen Energieversorgers..................................................................... 205 8.1.1 Allgemeine Informationen und Rahmenbedingungen ................................. 205 8.1.2 Auswahl des Kooperationspartners der Stadtwerke ENEFFTECH-Stadt GmbH... .......................................................................................................... 206 8.1.3 Rahmenbedingungen hinsichtlich des Emissionshandels............................ 208 8.1.4 Auswahl der Wertschöpfungspartner ....................................................... 211 8.2 Lösungsansätze unter Nutzung des Supply Chain Managements ...................... 212 8.2.1 Systematisierung der Investitionsalternativen............................................ 212 8.2.2 Ableitung der Investitionsentscheidung .................................................... 217 Teil E Zusammenfassung und Schlussbetrachtungen ................................................. 220 9 Zusammenfassung und Fazit der Arbeit ................................................... 220 9.1 Zusammenfassende Einschätzung ................................................................ 220 9.2 Quo Vadis? - Ableitung des weiteren Forschungsbedarfes................................ 225 Symbole, Einheiten und Umrechnungen ................................................................... 227 Glossar ................................................................................................................ 229 Literatur- und Quellenverzeichnis............................................................................. 244 Anhang ................................................................................................................ 276

Die Bepreisung von Treibhausgasemissionen ist eine der am intensivsten diskutierten Strategien zur Mitigation des menschengemachten Klimawandels. Eine CO2-Steuer oder ein Emissionshandel nach dem „Cap and Trade“-Prinzip sind die prominentesten Vorschläge und stehen auch im Zentrum dieser Dissertation. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, näher zu beleuchten, was aus moralischer Sicht für und gegen die Bepreisung von Treibhausgasen spricht. Zu diesem Zweck werden in drei Kapiteln Argumente für die Bepreisung von Treibhausgasen untersucht und in drei weiteren Kapiteln Argumente gegen die Bepreisung von Treibhausgasen diskutiert. Hierbei baue ich auf der existierenden philosophischen Literatur zum Thema auf; bringe jedoch auch neue Argumente in die Debatte ein. Ich komme zu einem gemischten Fazit. Manche Argumente für die Bepreisung von Treibhausgasemissionen halten einer genaueren philosophischen Betrachtung nicht stand (Effizienz, Ausmaß der Freiheitseinschränkungen), aber auch nicht alle Argumente gegen die Bepreisung überzeugen (Kommodifizierung). Auf der anderen Seite ist festzuhalten, dass ein Argument für die Bepreisung schlüssig scheint (Effektivität) und zwei kritische Argumente zumindest in Teilen überzeugen (mangelnde Fairness, Auswirkung auf intrinsische Motivation). Die Dissertation soll wichtige Erkenntnisse für das aus moralischer Sicht optimale Design eines Preises auf Treibhausgasemissionen liefern. Eine endgültige Antwort auf die Frage, ob wir den Weg der Bepreisung von Treibhausgasemissionen relevanten Alternativen vorziehen sollten, kann nur nach einer interdisziplinären Debatte gegeben werden. Zu dieser soll die vorliegende Dissertation ein Beitrag sein. / Pricing greenhouse gas emissions is one of the most intensely discussed strategies to mitigate climate change. Implementing a carbon tax or a ‚cap and trade‘ emissions trading scheme are the two most prominent proposals and the ones that this doctoral thesis focuses upon. Its goal is to contribute to a better understanding of the moral reasons that speak for or against carbon pricing. The first three chapters deal with moral arguments in favor of carbon pricing and the last three chapters with moral arguments against carbon pricing. In doing so, I build on the existing literature, but also develop new arguments. Some of the arguments in favor of carbon pricing turn out to be unconvincing (Least Cost Argument, Liberty Argument), but the same is true for one argument against carbon pricing (Commodification Argument). One of the arguments in favor of carbon pricing proves to be sound (Effectiveness Argument), while two of the arguments against it have at least some credibility (Solidarity Objection, Carbon Pricing and Motivation). This doctoral thesis aims to provide some insights into how to price carbon, but a final answer to the question of whether we should price carbon can only be given after an interdisciplinary debate to which this work of moral philosophy is but one contribution.

This study emanates from the worldwide issue of climate change, as well as the need for all nations to make an effort to reduce their carbon emissions and move towards greener economies. It delves into South Africa's current command-and-control environmental enforcement regime and highlights the pitfalls that allow major air polluters to avoid sanction of any form in many instances. This poor environmental enforcement and compliance effectively means that South Africa is unlikely to be capable of meeting targets set under international agreements. The study confirms that environmental enforcement is inadequately addressed in South Africa. This is attributable to the inherent shortcomings of command-and-control approaches, including that they are inflexible and offer few incentives for firms to modify behaviour to reduce emissions. Poor enforcement of environmental legislation results in negative externalities caused by air pollution being borne by people who did not create such pollution. The study therefore advocates the use of market-based mechanisms as an alternative to traditional command-and-control approaches to environmental enforcement. In light of the South African government's recent publication of the Draft Carbon Tax Bill, carbon taxes as a subset of market-based environmental enforcement mechanisms have the potential to better enforce the polluter pays principle. Mexico, arguably the most forward-thinking developing nation in terms of climate change mitigation, has taken numerous steps towards meeting international commitments, including the implementation of a carbon tax. While South Africa's proposed carbon tax does differ from Mexico's in some respects, the basic premise remains the same and some comparisons can be made in this regard, with accompanying lessons to be learned. Such lessons include that it is imperative that the carbon tax must be set at a high enough rate to meet international commitments whilst at the same time avoiding adverse economic effects, maintaining social welfare and stabilising economic output levels. The proposed carbon tax, while unable to achieve this on its own, is a good place to start and should be utilised in conjunction with the Draft Climate Change Bill to effectively and efficaciously bring about the required change. The proposed carbon tax undoubtedly has the potential to better hold major air polluters responsible for their CO2 and other GHG emissions. / Private Law / LL. M.

Dans le cadre de la Western Climate Iniative, le Québec a déployé en 2012, un système de plafonnement et d’échange de droits d’émission de gaz à effet de serre (SPEDE). Il s’agit de l’un des premiers régimes de ce type en Amérique du Nord et celui-ci pourrait à terme, constituer l'un des maillons d’un marché commun du carbone à l’échelle du continent. Toutefois, le SPEDE appartient à une catégorie d’instruments économiques de protection de l’environnement encore peu connue des juristes. Il s’inscrit en effet dans la régulation économique de l’environnement et repose sur des notions tirées de la théorie économique, dont la rareté, la propriété et le marché. La thèse s’insère donc dans le dialogue entre juristes et économistes autour de la conception et de la mise en œuvre de ce type d’instrument. Afin d’explorer son architecture et de révéler les enjeux juridiques qui le traversent, nous avons eu recours à la méthode de l’analyse économique du droit. Celle-ci permet notamment de montrer les dynamiques d'incitation et d’efficacité qui sont à l'œuvre dans les règles qui encadrent le SPEDE. Elle permet également à donner un aperçu du rôle décisif joué par la formulation des règles de droit dans l’opérationnalisation des hypothèses économiques sous-jacentes à cette catégorie d’instrument. L’exploration est menée par l’entremise d’une modélisation progressive de l’échange de droits d’émission qui prend en compte les coûts de transaction. Le modèle proposé dans la thèse met ainsi en lumière, de manière générale, les points de friction qui sont susceptibles de survenir aux différentes étapes de l'échange de droits d'émission et qui peuvent faire obstacle à son efficacité économique. L’application du modèle aux règles du SPEDE a permis de contribuer à l’avancement des connaissances en donnant aux juristes un outil permettant de donner une cohérence et une intelligibilité à l’analyse des règles de l’échange. Elle a ainsi fourni une nomenclature des règles encadrant l’échange de droits d’émission. Cette nomenclature fait ressortir les stratégies de diversification de l’échange, d’institutionnalisation de ses modalités ainsi que les enjeux de la surveillance des marchés, dont celui des instruments dérivés adossés aux droits d’émission, dans un contexte de fragmentation des autorités de tutelle. / As part of the launch of the Western Climate Initiative, the province of Québec has implemented on January 1st, 2012, one of the first carbon emissions trading system in North America (CETS). Such a system could in time become part of the emerging regulated market for carbon on the continent. However, it belongs to a category of economic instruments still timidly explored in legal literature. The CETS forms part of the economic regulation of the environment and is based on concepts drawn from the economic theory such as scarcity, property and the market. The thesis aims at contributing to the dialogue between jurists and economists around the design and implementation of this type of instrument. In order to explore its architecture and uncover the legal issues at play, we applied the teachings of law and economics in order to reveal the underlying dynamics of incitation and efficiency built in the CETS regulations and highlight the pivotal role played by the formulation of legal rules in their operationalization. The exploration is conducted through a progressive modelling of the exchange of emission rights, which takes into account transaction costs. The resulting model brings to light friction points that are likely to occur at different stages of the exchange of emission rights and might negatively impact its economic efficiency. The thesis contributes to the advancement of knowledge by offering jurists a coherent and intelligible legal analysis of the rules governing the exchange of emission rights in the CETS. Thus, it provides a systematic arrangement of these rules structured around the diversification strategies of the exchange and the institutionalization of its terms. It also raises market surveillance issues, particularly of the carbon derivatives market, in a context of fragmentation of market authorities.

<p>The aim of the thesis is to analyze the design of the present climate and energy policies. The main focus is on how the policy instruments affect the Swedish stakeholders who are included in the European Union’s Emission Trading Scheme (EU-ETS). In-depth interviews have been carried out with representatives from the basic industry, energy utilities as well as industrial and green organizations. The purpose is to illustrate have how these stakeholders view the current policy framework and what amendments that they view as necessary.</p><p>Suggestions to the Government are given regarding the design of national policies and policy instruments to provide for an improved policy framework. The information and synthesis have furthermore been collected through extensive literature studies as well as participating at conferences and seminars.</p><p>The thesis is written as a monograph in order to address a larger group of readers interested in the transition of energy systems towards sustainability as well as policy makers and Swedish stakeholders. The common understanding that the global energy systems have to undergo a transition to renewables and higher energy efficiency due to the earth’s finite sources of fossil fuels and uranium presents large challenges for policy makers and business sectors as well as the society in general.</p><p>Global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have to be drastically reduced and the work to achieve this has started through international negotiations such as the Kyoto Protocol. As the present commitment levels are low, an important issue in a short-term perspective is to develop a more comprehensive and efficient system with a much wider participation and more stringent emission targets.</p><p>In order to achieve current national policy goals and international GHG emission commitments the Swedish Government utilizes a number of policy instruments that are either nationally self-assumed or called for by international agreements or the European Union. The Swedish stakeholders that are included in the EU-ETS face a broad policy framework that has a large impact on their daily operations and future investment strategies. It is imperative for the policymakers, i.e. the Government, to act in accordance with the long-term perspective that the climate change issue and the transition of the energy system require. It is likewise important that any actions are in accordance with the operational and investment climate that the business sector faces. It is argued that these aspects are not fully considered as the success of the next national budget or term of public office seems to overshadow these issues. A long-term perspective is required to provide the business sector with stable and reliable incentives. This is needed to provide the economic conditions under which the businesses can realize investments that will result in emission reductions. Short-term policies reinforce the view of environmental investments as a form of risk investments. This negatively affects the possibility of the policy instruments to effectively achieve established policy goals.</p><p>Paying attention to these requirements is however not a simple task for policy makers as it will require agreements between the political parties. This demonstrates the main political difficulty with climate change – the requirement of a long-term and full commitment by all state authorities. It should be noted that the thesis does not attempt to describe the Swedish policy makers as neglecting the urgency of acting to mitigate climate change. The national agenda is far to advanced from an international perspective for such statements. The thesis however pinpoints some important issues highlighted by stakeholders, within the business sector and other organizations, who are concerned with the present climate and energy policy framework.</p><p>Some of the findings are as follows:</p><p>• Reducing GHG emissions in order to combat climate change must include a long-term perspective</p><p>• The design of policy instruments should consequently be long-term to increase the support for investments in GHG emission reducing technologies</p><p>• The design of policies that promote low GHG production alternatives within the energy utilities should be improved</p><p>• The large potential for reduced GHG emission available through fuel switching and energy efficiency improvements in the Swedish basic industry should be promoted by amended policies</p><p>• Reformulate or abandon the national GHG emissions target goal with the current formulation</p><p>• Strive for an emission rights allocation system that is as transparent, fair and predictable as possible</p><p>• The policy framework should aim for a high level of stability through interaction with the affected stakeholders</p><p>• These factors are inherently important for the overall efficiency of the policy framework</p>

Dans le cadre de la Western Climate Iniative, le Québec a déployé en 2012, un système de plafonnement et d’échange de droits d’émission de gaz à effet de serre (SPEDE). Il s’agit de l’un des premiers régimes de ce type en Amérique du Nord et celui-ci pourrait à terme, constituer l'un des maillons d’un marché commun du carbone à l’échelle du continent. Toutefois, le SPEDE appartient à une catégorie d’instruments économiques de protection de l’environnement encore peu connue des juristes. Il s’inscrit en effet dans la régulation économique de l’environnement et repose sur des notions tirées de la théorie économique, dont la rareté, la propriété et le marché. La thèse s’insère donc dans le dialogue entre juristes et économistes autour de la conception et de la mise en œuvre de ce type d’instrument. Afin d’explorer son architecture et de révéler les enjeux juridiques qui le traversent, nous avons eu recours à la méthode de l’analyse économique du droit. Celle-ci permet notamment de montrer les dynamiques d'incitation et d’efficacité qui sont à l'œuvre dans les règles qui encadrent le SPEDE. Elle permet également à donner un aperçu du rôle décisif joué par la formulation des règles de droit dans l’opérationnalisation des hypothèses économiques sous-jacentes à cette catégorie d’instrument. L’exploration est menée par l’entremise d’une modélisation progressive de l’échange de droits d’émission qui prend en compte les coûts de transaction. Le modèle proposé dans la thèse met ainsi en lumière, de manière générale, les points de friction qui sont susceptibles de survenir aux différentes étapes de l'échange de droits d'émission et qui peuvent faire obstacle à son efficacité économique. L’application du modèle aux règles du SPEDE a permis de contribuer à l’avancement des connaissances en donnant aux juristes un outil permettant de donner une cohérence et une intelligibilité à l’analyse des règles de l’échange. Elle a ainsi fourni une nomenclature des règles encadrant l’échange de droits d’émission. Cette nomenclature fait ressortir les stratégies de diversification de l’échange, d’institutionnalisation de ses modalités ainsi que les enjeux de la surveillance des marchés, dont celui des instruments dérivés adossés aux droits d’émission, dans un contexte de fragmentation des autorités de tutelle. / As part of the launch of the Western Climate Initiative, the province of Québec has implemented on January 1st, 2012, one of the first carbon emissions trading system in North America (CETS). Such a system could in time become part of the emerging regulated market for carbon on the continent. However, it belongs to a category of economic instruments still timidly explored in legal literature. The CETS forms part of the economic regulation of the environment and is based on concepts drawn from the economic theory such as scarcity, property and the market. The thesis aims at contributing to the dialogue between jurists and economists around the design and implementation of this type of instrument. In order to explore its architecture and uncover the legal issues at play, we applied the teachings of law and economics in order to reveal the underlying dynamics of incitation and efficiency built in the CETS regulations and highlight the pivotal role played by the formulation of legal rules in their operationalization. The exploration is conducted through a progressive modelling of the exchange of emission rights, which takes into account transaction costs. The resulting model brings to light friction points that are likely to occur at different stages of the exchange of emission rights and might negatively impact its economic efficiency. The thesis contributes to the advancement of knowledge by offering jurists a coherent and intelligible legal analysis of the rules governing the exchange of emission rights in the CETS. Thus, it provides a systematic arrangement of these rules structured around the diversification strategies of the exchange and the institutionalization of its terms. It also raises market surveillance issues, particularly of the carbon derivatives market, in a context of fragmentation of market authorities.

The pressing global demand to transform to a low-carbon business community, which is required by the urgency of mitigating climate change, significantly alters the operating procedures for carbon emitters and carbon revenue generators alike. Although agricultural activities are not considered as heavy carbon emission source, the increased public focus on climate change has catapulted the exploitation of sustainable agricultural land management mitigating strategies as intervention by the sector. Additionally, the focus on market-based mechanism to address climate change, which has led to the evolution of cap-and-trade schemes, makes the agricultural sector become a source of low-cost carbon offsets. However, the fact that cap-and-trade schemes in the agricultural sector are voluntary has resulted into not only very diverse farming practices but also diverse accounting practices. The consequences of the diversity practices are that, the impacts on financial performance and position are not comparable. Therefore, the overall objective of this study was to investigate the recognition, measurement and disclosure for cap-and-trade schemes in the agricultural sectors This study was conducted through literature reviews and empirical test. A qualitative research approach utilising constructivist methodology was employed. Primary data was collected in Kenya by administering three sets of semi-structured questionnaires to drafters of financial statements, loan officers and financial consultants. Secondary data involved content analysis of financial statements and reports of listed entities across the globe. It was established that proper accounting for cap-and-trade schemes adaptation activities is critical to the success of an entity’s environmental portfolio. Additionally, a model for valuing an organisation's carbon capture potential as suggested by this study enables entities to better report the impact of the adaptation activities on the financial performance and financial position. The outcome of this study enables entities to integrate the carbon capture potential on an entity sustainability reporting framework. / Colleges of Economic and Management Sciences / D. Phil. (Accounting Science)

The aim of the thesis is to analyze the design of the present climate and energy policies. The main focus is on how the policy instruments affect the Swedish stakeholders who are included in the European Union’s Emission Trading Scheme (EU-ETS). In-depth interviews have been carried out with representatives from the basic industry, energy utilities as well as industrial and green organizations. The purpose is to illustrate have how these stakeholders view the current policy framework and what amendments that they view as necessary. Suggestions to the Government are given regarding the design of national policies and policy instruments to provide for an improved policy framework. The information and synthesis have furthermore been collected through extensive literature studies as well as participating at conferences and seminars. The thesis is written as a monograph in order to address a larger group of readers interested in the transition of energy systems towards sustainability as well as policy makers and Swedish stakeholders. The common understanding that the global energy systems have to undergo a transition to renewables and higher energy efficiency due to the earth’s finite sources of fossil fuels and uranium presents large challenges for policy makers and business sectors as well as the society in general. Global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have to be drastically reduced and the work to achieve this has started through international negotiations such as the Kyoto Protocol. As the present commitment levels are low, an important issue in a short-term perspective is to develop a more comprehensive and efficient system with a much wider participation and more stringent emission targets. In order to achieve current national policy goals and international GHG emission commitments the Swedish Government utilizes a number of policy instruments that are either nationally self-assumed or called for by international agreements or the European Union. The Swedish stakeholders that are included in the EU-ETS face a broad policy framework that has a large impact on their daily operations and future investment strategies. It is imperative for the policymakers, i.e. the Government, to act in accordance with the long-term perspective that the climate change issue and the transition of the energy system require. It is likewise important that any actions are in accordance with the operational and investment climate that the business sector faces. It is argued that these aspects are not fully considered as the success of the next national budget or term of public office seems to overshadow these issues. A long-term perspective is required to provide the business sector with stable and reliable incentives. This is needed to provide the economic conditions under which the businesses can realize investments that will result in emission reductions. Short-term policies reinforce the view of environmental investments as a form of risk investments. This negatively affects the possibility of the policy instruments to effectively achieve established policy goals. Paying attention to these requirements is however not a simple task for policy makers as it will require agreements between the political parties. This demonstrates the main political difficulty with climate change – the requirement of a long-term and full commitment by all state authorities. It should be noted that the thesis does not attempt to describe the Swedish policy makers as neglecting the urgency of acting to mitigate climate change. The national agenda is far to advanced from an international perspective for such statements. The thesis however pinpoints some important issues highlighted by stakeholders, within the business sector and other organizations, who are concerned with the present climate and energy policy framework. Some of the findings are as follows: • Reducing GHG emissions in order to combat climate change must include a long-term perspective • The design of policy instruments should consequently be long-term to increase the support for investments in GHG emission reducing technologies • The design of policies that promote low GHG production alternatives within the energy utilities should be improved • The large potential for reduced GHG emission available through fuel switching and energy efficiency improvements in the Swedish basic industry should be promoted by amended policies • Reformulate or abandon the national GHG emissions target goal with the current formulation • Strive for an emission rights allocation system that is as transparent, fair and predictable as possible • The policy framework should aim for a high level of stability through interaction with the affected stakeholders • These factors are inherently important for the overall efficiency of the policy framework