This thesis is composed of two essays that study behavioral economics to motivate health-promoting behaviors. The first paper, "Does Nutrition Education Reduce Delay Discounting?," studies delay discounting, or delayed gratification, which is an important research topic because it plays a role in producing numerous health outcomes, such as obesity. It is important to understand how the delay discounting process relates to unhealthy diets. People who discount the value of future outcomes prefer immediate rewards (e.g., enjoyment/taste) even though a larger reward from delaying exists (e.g., good health status). In this paper, we aim to provide evidence over whether nutrition education reduces delay discounting. Our analysis, therefore, provides guidance for designing more effective interventions to help increase overall health. The second paper, "Are We Reaching Those Most In Need?: Motivation Profiles and Willingness-to-Participate," explores the potentially negative psychological spillover effects (i.e., "crowding out" effects), which can complicate incentives' effectiveness because it can make targeted behavior (i.e., the aim to improve one's health) less desirable. To understand this "crowding out" effect, our paper examines how different types of motivations (i.e., intrinsic and extrinsic motivations) influence people's willingness-to-participate in a weight control program with and without incentives. This analysis provides further guidance for designing more effective interventions by considering different recruitment strategies to target different individuals, which can minimize the negative spillover of incentives. / Master of Science

Syfte och frågeställning  Syftet med studien var att undersöka vilken typ av motivation, utifrån självbestämmandeteorin, som människor drivs av gällande träning på gym, och hur detta förhåller sig beroende på träningserfarenhet, kön och ålder. Tre frågeställningar har undersökts, vilka motivationstyper skattas högst hos gymtränande vuxna och föreligger skillnader mellan kön och ålder? Förekommer samband mellan träningserfarenhet och olika motivationstyper? Skiljer sig dessa samband beroende på kön och ålder?  Metod  Studien utgick från en kvantitativ tvärsnittsdesign med en enkätundersökning. Enkäten var indelad i två delar där den första delen bestod av bakgrundsfrågor som inkluderade bland annat frågor om ålder, kön samt fysisk aktivitetsnivå och antal år på gym. I den andra delen används enkäten “The Behavioural Regulation In Exercise Questionnaire" (BREQ-3). Data sammanställdes och analyserades i statistikprogrammet Jamovi.  Resultat  N=389 deltog i studien. Resultaten visade att identifierad- och inre reglering var främst förekommande. Inre reglering var starkast sammankopplat med träningserfarenhet. Kvinnor skattade identifierad reglering högre än män och yngre skattade introjicerad reglering högre medan äldre skattade identifierad reglering högre. Utöver det verkade kön och ålder ha en mindre betydande roll för hur sambanden mellan träningserfarenhet och motivationstyp såg ut.  Slutsats  Den självbestämmande moitvationen ökar med träningsvana. Kön och ålder hade mindre inverkan. Identifierad reglering var den enda motivationstypen som visar samband mellan ålderskillnader och träningserfarenhet. Gymtränade vuxna skattade identiferad reglering och inre reglering högst. Kvinnors morivation styrdes mer av identifierad reglering än män. Hos de yngre skattades introjicerad reglering och intergrerad reglering högre än hos de äldre, som styrs i större utstäckning av identifierad reglering. / Aim:  The aim of the study was to investigate what types of motivation, based on self-determination theory, drive people to exercise at the gym, and how this relates to training experience, gender, and age. Three research questions were investigated, which motivation types are most highly rated by gym-going adults, and are there any differences between genders and ages? Are there any correlations between training experience and different types of motivation? Do these correlations differ depending on gender and age?  Method:  The study used a quantitative cross-sectional design with a survey. The survey was divided into two parts. The first part consisted of background questions, including age, gender, physical activity level, and number of years at the gym. The second part used the "Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire" (BREQ-3). Data was collected and analyzed using the Jamovi statistical program.  Results:  N=389 participants took part in the study. The results showed that identified and internal regulation were the most prevalent. Internal regulation was most strongly associated with training experience. Women rated identified regulation higher than men and younger participants rated introjected regulation higher while older participants rated identified regulation higher. In addition, gender and age seemed to have a less significant role in how the relationships between training experience and motivation type looked like.  Conclusion:  Self-determined motivation increases with training experience. Gender and age had a smaller impact. Identified regulation was the only type of motivation that showed a correlation between age differences and training experience. Gym-going adults rated identified regulation and internal regulation the highest. Women's motivation was more driven by identified regulation than men's. Among younger people, introjected regulation and integrated regulation were rated higher than among older people, who were more driven by identified regulation.

The purpose of this study was to investigate project managers´ perceptions of the importance of motivation within real estate projects. The study also aimed to examine how project managers promote and maintain motivation amongst project members. Real estate projects referred to projects for renovation, conversion, or new construction of properties. A qualitative research method was employed for data collection through semi-structured interviews. Nine project managers working in the Swedish real estate industry were interviewed. Subsequently, a thematic analysis of the collected data was conducted. The thematic analysis resulted in three themes formulated as Success factor versus Upward Push, The art of motivating and Motivation per circumstance. The results indicate that project managers perceive motivation as a positive driving force in real estate projects. It is considered important for both project managers and project members to be motivated. Furthermore, the results show that the perception of the significance of motivation within real estate projects is divided. Some project managers perceive motivation as critical for the success of a project, while others believe that real estate projects are often influenced by external circumstances that are more decisive for the outcome of the project. Motivation is therefore considered in those cases rather to add an extra edge to the projects. To promote and maintain motivation amongst project members, project managers believe it is important to build personal relationships, work with feedback and encourage the expression of opinions.

Denna studie analyserar sambanden mellan transformativ ledarskapsstil, arbetsmiljö och studenters motivation samt dess relation till organisatorisk commitment, med fokus på studenter med en anställning. Studien undersöker även bakgrundsvariablerna program, ålder, kön och tid på arbetsplatsen och dess betydelse för organisatorisk commitment och motivation. Data samlades in via en enkät som distribuerades via e-post till Mittuniversitetets ekonom- och civilekonomstudenter i Sundsvall och Östersund. Efter att en påminnelse skickats ut erhölls totalt 102 svar. Därefter utfördes multivariata regressionsanalyser i datorprogrammet SPSS, samt för en utförligare analys av studiens analysmodell tillämpades SmartPLS. Denna data möjliggjorde därefter bekräftandet eller förkastandet av studiens fyra hypoteser. Den första hypotesen analyserar sambandet mellan inre motivation och organisatorisk commitment, vilket denna studie bekräftar och överensstämmer med tidigare forskning. Vidare analyseras sambandet mellan yttre motivation och organisatorisk commitment, där hypotesen förkastas, i linje med tidigare forskning som visar på en svag relation. Studien analyserar även sambandet mellan transformativ ledarskapsstil och organisatorisk commitment genom inre motivation, vilket också bekräftas och överensstämmer med tidigare forskning. Slutligen analyserar studien sambandet mellan arbetsmiljö och organisatorisk commitment genom yttre motivation, vilket utgör den fjärde hypotesen och även den bekräftas, i linje med tidigare forskning. / This study analyzes the relationships between transformational leadership style, work environment, and students´ motivation, and their relation to organizational commitment, with a focus on employed students. The study also examines background variables such as program, age, gender, and time at workplace and their significance for organizational commitment and motivation. Data was collected through a survey distributed via e-mail to business- and business economics students at Mid Sweden University in Sundsvall and Östersund. Following a reminder, a total of 102 responses were received. Multivariate regression analyses were then conducted using SPSS software, and SmartPLS was used for a more detailed analysis of the study’s analysis model. This data enabled the confirmation or rejection of the study’s four hypotheses. The first hypothesis examines the relationship between intrinsic motivation and organizational commitment, which this study confirms, aligning with previous research. Furthermore, the study also examines the relationship between extrinsic motivation and organizational commitment, where the hypothesis is rejected, in line with previous research of a weak connection. Additionally, the study examines the relationship between transformational leadership style and organizational commitment through intrinsic motivation, which is likewise confirmed, aligning with previous research. Finally, the study analyzes the relationship between work environment and organizational commitment through extrinsic motivation. This fourth hypothesis is also confirmed, in line with previous research.

From the wave of policy reforms of the new Minister of Education and Human Resources for a "World Class Quality Education", stakeholders have been ascribing the poor quality of learner performance to a lack of motivated teachers. This study focuses on the factors that impact on teacher motivation in the Flacq district of Mauritius and on the role of the principal in enhancing teacher motivation. An empirical investigation based on qualitative research was conducted following the literature study on these two themes. Motivational factors pertain to the school-based personal and professional needs of the teacher. Due to centralised school governance and instructional leadership tasks being delegated to the School Management Team, principals are not effective teacher motivators. Recommendations relate to transformational, distributive and participatory leadership strategies for optimal instructional principalship. / Educational Leadership and Management / M. Ed. (Educational management)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship that exists between academic self-concept, motivation and academic achievement at the University of the Free State. The primary aim of this study was to determine if academic self-concept and motivation of quantity surveying students at the University of the Free State could predict their level of academic achievement. The sample was selected by means of convenience sampling. Relevant literature indicated that there are contrasting findings about whether a relationship exists between students’ academic self-concepts and motivation, and academic achievement. The empirical investigation revealed that there are only significant correlations between academic self-concept, motivation and academic achievement in some of the study year levels and not in all of them. / Educational Studies / M.Ed. (Adult education)

The central theme of the research is an investigation into what motivates FET phase learners to learn. All learners are interested in learning certain things however, learners interests often do not correspond with what teachers are required to teach. Teachers are therefore constantly searching for ways to motivate learners to learn. This challenge is not easy for teachers in a culturally homogenous classroom, but becomes even greater when the classes are comprised of learners from diverse cultural backgrounds. So then how does a teacher motivate learners in general, and more specifically learners from different cultural orientations? This is a difficult question to answer but one that needs to be addressed considering the diversity of cultures found in the South African classroom. In this study an attempt is made to examine what motivates learners to learn, and the influence of culture on the motivation to learn of Further Education and Training (FET) phase learners in a multicultural classroom. Data on these two elements is collected through the use of structured questionnaires and focus group interviews and is analysed in order to answer the research question. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Psychology of Education)

Existing scales were modified and factor-analysed through "prepilof' and pilot studies for exploring relations between academic motivation, achievement, and cognitive factors such as locus of control (LOC), attributions, perceived self-determination and ability. Distinct, conceptually meaningful factors emerged. Thirty-seven hypotheses were tested on Unisa students. Among notable findings were: • Internal LOC related to academic motivation, but treating LOC as a set of distinct factors rather than a bipolar dimension offered more insights (e.g. "Impotence" rather than other external LOC factors related negatively to · achievement). • Little was gained from categorising attributions according to Weiner's dimensions. • Intrinsic motivation and "identified regulation" related positively to motivation. • Students' (especially unsuccessful students') expectations of success and perceptions of their ability were over-estimated. • Different factors related to motivation and achievement in different cultural groups. • Although motivation and achievement are usually positively related, this did not apply to disadvantaged groups. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

The purpose of this investigation was to determine sociopoli tical factors related to students' attitude towards school. A questionnaire was compiled based on the literature study and was completed by 306 students doing standards eight, nine and ten at a secondary school in Benoni. Five socio-political factors were identified, namely: school experience, extrinsic motivation, pedagogical deprivation, political socialisation and school administration. The empirical study revealed: * A positive attitude towards school by the research group. * Significant correlations between attitude towards school and the five independent variables. * No significant difference in attitude towards school of: boys and girls, standard eight, nine and ten students and students staying with parents or with guardians. * The maximum variance in attitude towards school explained by a combination of variables is 43.2%. Recommendations are made for the enrichment of the family and school environments and areas of possible future research postulated. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Psychology of Education)

Arbetslivscoachning har etablerat sig på arbetsmarknaden som utvecklingsmetod av medarbetares arbetsprestation. Denna studie syftade till att undersöka coachade medarbetares upplevelser av arbetslivscoachning, i förhållande till autonomi, motivation och utveckling. Respondenterna arbetade på ett kommunalt äldreboende i Stockholmsregionen. Totalt utgjorde tio semistrukturerade medarbetarintervjuer studiens huvudsakliga datamaterial. Dessutom genomfördes en semistrukturerad intervju med medarbetarnas enhetschef, som även coachade medarbetarna. Data analyserades via empiristyrd tematisk analys, med inspiration från innehållsanalys. Studiens teoretiska inramning innefattade Illeris lärmodell, Hackman & Oldhams motivationsmodell, Deci & Ryans självbestämmandeteori samt Locke & Lathams målsättningsteori. Medarbetarna upplevde autonomi inom gruppens målformulering, däremot med begränsad individuell autonomi. Resultatet visade att coachen bör vara autonomifrämjande, för att vara motivations-och utvecklingsfrämjande. Även relationen mellan coach och medarbetare är betydelsefull för att coachningen ska vara motivationsfrämjande, och därigenom utvecklingsfrämjande. Slutligen begränsas medarbetares inre motivation då coachen tillämpat ett styrande tillvägagångssätt somsaknar individanpassning. Avsaknad av individanpassning, samt gruppen kollektiva överenskommelse, bidrar snarare till en yttre motivation som är internaliserad. / Coaching has established itself on the labor market as a method for employee development, in regards to job performance. This study aimed to explore how employees undergoing work life coaching experience the coaching in relation to autonomy, motivation and development. All respondents worked at a communal geriatric care facility in Stockholm. Ten employees and their coach were interviewed, via semi-structured interviews. The coach also worked as the employees’ section director. Data was analysed using thematic analysis, with inspiration from content analysis. As theoretical framework Illeris Three Dimensions of Learning Model, Hackman & Oldhams Job Characteristic Theory, Deci & Ryans Self-Determination Theory, and Locke & Lathams Goal Setting Theory was applied. The employees experienced autonomy within team’s goal setting, however with limited individual autonomy. Results showed that a coach should work to enhance employee autonomy in order for coaching to have a positive effect on employee motivation and development. The relationship between coach and coachee is of importance for the coaching to have positive effect on employee motivation and development. Applying directive elements in the coaching style and lacking in individual accommodation hinders the employees’ intrinsic motivation. The lack of individual accommodation, and presence of collective understanding within the team, rather results in an internalised extrinsic motivation.