CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / O Biodiesel à industrialmente produzido atravÃs de reaÃÃo homogÃnea de transesterificaÃÃo de Ãleos vegetais na presenÃa de espÃcies bÃsicas como catalisadores. Entretanto, neste processo hà a necessidade de purificaÃÃo da fase Ãster e remoÃÃo da base apÃs a reaÃÃo. Neste trabalho, diferentes catalisadores bÃsicos heterogÃneos, tais como Ãxido de cÃlcio (4-20%) suportado sobre a sÃlica mesoporosa SBA-15 e catalisadores de Ãxidos MgAl e MgCa com diferentes relaÃÃes molares (3-24) Mg/Ca e Mg/Al, foram sintetizados e avaliados em reaÃÃes de transesterificaÃÃo. As propriedades texturais e a caracterizaÃÃo estrutural dos catalisadores foram determinadas pelas tÃcnicas de DRX, XPS, FT-IR, MEV e adsorÃÃo- dessorÃÃo de N2 a -196ÂC. A basicidade foi estudada mediante tÃcnicas de TPD-CO2 e decomposiÃÃo de isopropanol. A atividade catalÃtica foi avaliada em reaÃÃes de transesterificaÃÃo do butirato de etila com metanol, algumas variÃveis da reaÃÃo foram otimizadas e o catalisador mais ativo foi testado na produÃÃo de biodiesel a partir dos Ãleos de mamona e girassol. Para a sÃrie de catalisadores mesoporosos, a amostra com 14% de CaO em SBA-15 foi o catalisador mais ativo na transesterificaÃÃo do butirato de etila com metanol a 60ÂC e pressÃo atmosfÃrica. A maior atividade na produÃÃo de biodiesel foi observada para o catalisador SBA15-14CaO apresentando valores de conversÃo de 65,7% e 95% para os Ãleos de mamona e girassol apÃs 1 e 5h de tempo de reaÃÃo, respectivamente. Para os catalisadores de Ãxidos MgAl e MgCa, os catalisadores de MgCa mostraram-se mais ativos que os MgAl para a transesterificaÃÃo do butirato de etila. Em reaÃÃo com Ãleo de girassol, foi observado para o catalisador MgCa3 uma conversÃo de 92% a uma relaÃÃo molar metanol:Ãleo de 12, temperatura de reaÃÃo de 60ÂC e 2,5% em peso de catalisador no meio reacional. / Biodiesel is industrially produced by homogeneous transesterification of vegetable oils in the presence of basic species. However, removal of the base after reaction is a major problem, since purification of the ester phase is needed. In this study, different heterogeneous catalysts, based on calcium oxide (4-20%) supported on mesoporous SBA- 15 silica, and MgAl and MgCa oxides with different Mg/Ca and Mg/Al molar ratios (3- 24), have been synthesized, characterized and evaluated in transesterification reactions. Their textural and structural characterizations were carried out using XRD, XPS, FT-IR, SEM and N2 sorption at -196ÂC. Their basicities were studied by CO2-TPD and isopropanol catalytic decomposition. Their catalytic activities was evaluated for the transesterification reaction of ethyl butyrate with methanol, and several reaction parameters were optimized. The most active catalysts were tested in biodiesel production from castor and sunflower oils. The sample with a 14 wt% of CaO in SBA-15 was the most active catalysts in the transesterification of ethyl butyrate with methanol at 60ÂC and atmospheric pressure. For the MgAl and MgCa oxide catalysts, MgCa mixed oxides were more active than MgAl in the same system. The highest activity in biodiesel production was found for SBA15-14CaO as 65,7% and 95% for castor and sunflower oils after reacting for 1 and 5h, respectively. In the case of MgAl and MgCa oxides catalysts, sunflower oil conversion of 92% was achieved with methanol:oil molar ratio of 12, reaction temperature of 333 K and 2.5 wt% of MgCa3 catalyst. ______________________________________________________________________

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo sistemático sobre síntese, caracterização e análise térmica aplicada a óxidos mistos dos tipos TR2NiO4 [TR = La, Eu e Y (III)] e TRNiO3 [TR = Pr, Nd e Sm (III)]. Os primeiros óxidos foram obtidos a partir da decomposição térmica de acetatos de terras raras e níquel utilizando-se três métodos distintos: (1) mistura mecânica; (2) evaporação do solvente e (3) cristalização com acetona. Os acetatos simples e binários foram caracterizados por análise elementar, espectroscopia de absorção na região do infravermelho, difração de raios X, TG/DTG, DSC e DTA. Os resultados revelaram a formação de sais binários quando utilizaram-se os métodos 2 e/ou 3. Os produtos da decomposição térmica foram basicamente os óxidos individuais e após tratamento térmico obteveram-se os óxidos desejados. Os óxidos TRNiO3 foram preparados através de três métodos diferentes: (1) mistura de óxidos; (2) precipitação simultânea de hidróxidos e (3) processo sol-gel. Estas amostras foram sinterizadas em temperaturas 650 ≤ T ≤ 1000°C e sob pressões de até 70 atm de O2, caracterizadas por difração de raios X, resistividade elétrica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e calorimetria exploratória diferencial. Os resultados indicaram que o método sol-gel produziu óxidos monofásicos. Os outros dois métodos, mistura de óxidos e hidróxidos, produziram a fase desejada e traços dos óxidos individuais. Desta forma, concluiu-se que a escolha do método a ser utilizado é fundamental para a obtenção do óxido misto desejado. / This work reports a systematic study on the synthesis, characterization and thermal analysis applied of mixed oxides type-TR2NiO4 [TR = La, Eu e Y (III)] e typeTRNiO3 [TR = Pr, Nd e Sm (III)]. The first oxides were prepared through thermal decomposition of rare earth and nickel acetates, which were synthesized by three methods: (1) mechanical mixture; (2) solvent evaporation and (3) crystallization with addition of acetone. The simply and binary acetates were characterized by elementare analyses, infrared spectroscopy, X ray diffraction, TG/DTG, DSC and DTA. The results revealed formation of binary salts when was used the second and/or third methods. The products of thermal decomposition were single oxides, but after thermal treatment were obtained the single phase of materials. The last oxides were prepared through three different methods: (1) mixture of oxides; (2) simultaneous precipitation of hydroxides and (3) sol-gel process. Samples were sintered at temperatures between 650 ≤ T ≤ 1000°C and under oxygen pressures until 70 atm, characterized by X ray diffraction, electrical resistivity, scanning electron microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. The results revealed that the sol-gel method produced single phase oxides. The other two methods, mixture of oxides and hydroxides, led to have this phase with traces of single oxides. Therefore, it was concluded that the method used is fundamental to get the desired mixed oxides.

Abstract Exhaust gas emissions, e.g. nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons (HCs) and carbon monoxide (CO), are harmful to human health and the environment. Catalysis is an efficient method to decrease these emissions. Unfortunately, the fuels and lubricant oils may contain chemical impurities that are also present in exhaust gases. Thus, catalytic materials with high activity and chemical resistance towards impurities are needed in the abatement of exhaust gas emission. In this thesis, the aim was to gain new knowledge about the effects of chemical impurities on the behaviour and activity of the catalysts. To find out these effects, the impurities existing in the exhaust gas particulate matter after combustion of biofuels and fossil fuels were analysed. The studied zeolite (ZSM-5), cerium-zirconium mixed oxides (CeZr and ZrCe) and silicon-zirconium oxide (SiZr) based catalysts were also treated with impurities to simulate the poisoning of the catalysts by, e.g. potassium, sodium, phosphorus and sulphur, using gas or liquid phase treatments. Several characterization techniques were applied to find out the effects of impurities on catalysts’ properties. The activity of catalysts was tested in laboratory-scale measurements in CO and HC oxidation and NOx reduction using ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen (H2) as reductants. The results revealed that the CeZr based catalysts had a high activity in NOx reduction by NH3 and moderate activity by H2. Sulphur was proven to enhance the activity of CeZr catalysts in NOx reduction. This is due to an increase in chemisorbed oxygen after the sulphur treatment on the catalyst surface. Instead, in HC and CO oxidation reactions, sulphur had a negligible impact on the activity of the SiZr based diesel oxidation catalyst. Thus, both CeZr and SiZr based catalysts can be utilized in exhaust gas purification when sulphur is present. ZSM-5 based catalysts were proven to be resistant to potassium and sodium. Alternatively, the activity of SiZr based catalysts decreased due to phosphorus. Thus, the removal of biomaterial-based impurities from the exhaust gases is needed to retain high catalyst activity in the exhaust gas after-treatment system. / Tiivistelmä Pakokaasupäästöissä olevat typen oksidit (NOx), hiilivedyt (HCs) ja hiilimonoksidi (CO) ovat haitallisia ihmisten terveydelle ja ympäristölle. Katalyysi on tehokas menetelmä vähentää näitä päästökomponentteja. Polttoaineet ja voiteluöljyt sisältävät epäpuhtauksia, jotka siirtyvät myös pakokaasuihin. Tästä johtuen pakokaasupäästöjen hallinnassa tarvitaan katalyyttimateriaaleja, joilla on hyvä vastustuskyky myrkyttymistä vastaan. Tavoitteena oli saada uutta tietoa kemiallisten epäpuhtauksien vaikutuksesta katalyyttien toimintaan. Biopolttoaineiden sisältämät mahdolliset epäpuhtaudet selvitettiin analysoimalla fossiilisen ja biopolttoaineen palamisessa muodostuvia partikkeleita ja vertaamalla niitä polttoaineiden hivenaineanalyysiin. Tutkimuksessa käytetyt zeoliitti (ZSM-5), cerium-zirkonium-sekaoksidi (CeZr) ja pii-zirkonium-oksidipohjaiset (SiZr) katalyytit käsiteltiin epäpuhtauksilla (kalium, natrium, fosfori ja rikki) kaasu- ja nestefaasissa. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin useita karakterisointitekniikoita, joiden avulla selvitettiin epäpuhtauksien vaikutuksia katalyyttien ominaisuuksiin. Katalyyttien toimintaa testattiin laboratoriomittakaavan kokeissa CO:n ja HC-yhdisteiden hapetuksessa sekä NOx:ien pelkistyksessä käyttäen ammoniakkia (NH3) tai vetyä (H2) pelkistimenä. Tulokset osoittavat, että CeZr-pohjaisten katalyyttien aktiivisuus NOx:ien pelkistyksessä oli hyvä käytettäessä pelkistimenä NH3:a ja kohtalainen käytettäessä vetyä. Rikki paransi CeZr-katalyyttien aktiivisuutta NOx:ien pelkistyksessä, mikä johtui kemiallisesti sitoutuneen hapen osuudesta katalyyttien pinnoilla. Vastaavasti hiilivetyjen ja CO:n hapetusreaktioissa rikki ei vaikuttanut SiZr-pohjaisten dieselhapetuskatalyyttien aktiivisuuteen. Sekä CeZr- ja SiZr-pohjaisia katalyytteja voidaan siten käyttää rikkiä sisältävien pakokaasujen puhdistuksessa. SiZr-pohjaisten katalyyttien aktiivisuus laski fosforin vuoksi. ZSM-5-pohjaiset katalyytit olivat vastustuskykyisiä kaliumille ja natriumille. Kestäviä katalyyttejä on siten kehitettävä, mikäli biopolttoaineiden sisältämien epäpuhtauksien poistaminen polttoaineista ei ole mahdollista.

La conception de solides à la fois stables en conditions hydrothermales, mais aussi capables de convertir des composés biosourcés en molécules plateformes dans un même lit catalytique, représente un défi majeur en science des matériaux.Dans ce contexte, des oxydes mixtes binaires et ternaires de silice dopée avec les éléments W, Ti, Zr, Nb, Ta et Mg (3 à 20%at.) ont été élaborés via la méthode non conventionnelle de synthèse Sol-Gel Non Hydrolytique (SGNH). Cette méthode permet d’obtenir des oxydes mixtes très homogènes et de moduler finement leurs propriétés via les paramètres de synthèse.Les solides sont majoritairement amorphes et mésoporeux. Les analyses en MET-EDS, FTIR et ToF-SIMS indiquent que les éléments dopants sont bien dispersés dans la silice et que les oxydes mixtes présentent majoritairement une homogénéité allant jusqu’à l’échelle nanométrique voire atomique.Les molécules sondes NH3 et CO révèlent la présence des sites acides de forces faible et moyenne, majoritairement de type Lewis pour l’ensemble des matériaux. La densité de sites acides peut être promue via : l’amélioration du degré d’homogénéité entre les oxydes, l’élaboration d’oxydes mixtes ternaires et l’augmentation de la teneur en éléments dopants.La caractérisation des solides par la réaction modèle de conversion du mélange cyclopentanol/cyclohexanone en phase gaz montre que la majorité des matériaux catalysent à la fois des réactions de déshydratation et de transfert d’hydrogène (réduction MPVO).Après traitement hydrothermal en phase gaz à 400°C, les solides conservent de bonnes textures, en particulier les oxydes mixtes ternaires et dopés à haute teneur.Cette étude montre la versatilité de la méthode de synthèse SGNH et son potentiel pour mettre au point des oxydes mixtes binaires et ternaires très homogènes. Les oxydes mixtes ternaires, contenant 20% d’éléments dopants et contenant du Nb, du Zr ou du Ta sont particulièrement prometteurs pour les applications visées. / The design of new heterogeneous catalysts with good hydrothermal stability that are able to transform bio-based components into building blocks in one single catalytic process is a main challenge in material science.In this context, binary and ternary mixed oxides of silica doped with W, Ti, Zr, Nb, Ta et Mg (3 to 20%at.) have been produced with the non-conventional Non-Hydrolytic Sol-Gel (NHSG) synthesis method. This method enables to obtain highly homogeneous mixed oxides and to finely shape the properties of the material with the synthesis parameters.The solids are mostly amorphous and mesoporous. TEM-EDS, FTIR and ToF-SIMS analysis indicate that the doping elements are highly dispersed in the silica and that most of the mixed oxides display nanometric or atomic scale homogeneity.The NH3 and CO bases show the presence of mostly Lewis weak and medium strength acid sites for these materials. The acid sites density can be improved through: increasing mixed oxide homogeneity, preparing ternary mixed oxides, increasing doping element content.The conversion of the mixture cyclopentanol/cyclohexanone in the gas phase shows that the majority of the materials perform both dehydration and hydrogen transfer reactions (MPVO reduction).After steaming at 400°C, the solids maintain good textures, particularly ternary mixed oxides and mixed oxides containing high dopant content.This study shows the versatility of the NHSG synthesis method and its applicability in order to design binary and ternary mixed oxides. The ternary mixed oxides containing 20%at. of doping elements with Nb, Zr and Ta are promising for the conversion of bio-based compounds.

[pt] Esta tese descreve a síntese de um óxido misto de Zn e Zr (ZnxZr1-xOy), mediante uma técnica ainda não reportada e a utilização deste material na síntese de acetona a partir de etanol. O objetivo foi desenhar um catalisador com propriedades óxido-redutoras e capacidade de se autorregenerar após cada ciclo. A zircônia monoclínica (m-ZrO2) é um óxido já usado em catálise devido às suas propriedades ácido-básicas, mas com fracas propriedades óxido-redutoras. Estas últimas poderiam ser promovidas mediante dopagem substitucional deste material. A inserção de pequeníssimas quantidades de Zn na rede da m-ZrO2, mostraram um incremento apreciável na sua redutibilidade. O material obtido foi caracterizado por diversas técnicas e testado na obtenção de acetona a partir de etanol. O resultado indicou que a dopagem permitiu a formação de vacâncias de oxigênio, as quais promoveram a mobilidade do oxigênio até a superfície e, com isso, aumentaram redutibilidade do material. A seletividade da reação de conversão de etanol teve como produto maioritário a acetona. Foi demostrado que a regeneração do catalisador se deve a espécies oxidantes provenientes da dissociação da água presente no médio reacional; esta dissociação ocorreu nas vacâncias superficiais. Assim, demonstrou-se que a técnica desenvolvida no presente estudo, além de simples, resultou efetiva na síntese do óxido misto de Zn e Zr, um catalisador de composição simples, capaz de conduzir os diferentes passos do mecanismo na síntese de acetona. Considera-se que esta é a primeira etapa na sua viabilização comercial. / [en] This thesis describes the synthesis process of a mixed oxide with Zn and Zr (ZnxZr1-xOy), through a not yet published technique, as well as the utilization of this material in the acetone synthesis from ethanol. The mean goal was to design a catalyst with enhanced oxy-reduction properties and capability for selfregeneration after each cycle. Monoclinic zirconia (m-ZrO2) is already used in catalysis due to its acidic-basic properties, although its oxy-reduction properties are negligible. The enhancement of the oxy-reduction properties can be reached by substitutional doping of this material with a lower oxidation state metal. The insertion of very small quantities of Zn in the m-ZrO2 lattice, showed a high increment of its reducibility. The mixed oxides obtained were characterized by several techniques and catalytically tested in the acetone synthesis from ethanol. The results showed that doping allows the formation of oxygen vacancies, which allow oxygen mobility and therefore, the enhancement of reducibility. The reaction selectivity had acetone as majority product. It was shown that water is also produced and that it is dissociated in the oxygen vacancies generating oxidant species. The catalysts regeneration occurs due to those oxidant species. Therefore, it was demonstrated that the technique developed in this study was easy and effective in the synthesis of the mixed oxide with Zn and Zr, a catalyst with simple composition able to conduct every step of the acetone synthesis. This is considered the first step in the commercial feasibility of this material.

In this work, mixed alkoxides of general formula [V(O)Nbx(OR)(3+5x)] (R = n-C3H7 and C2H5, x = 1, 4.5 and 9) are obtained. They are used to prepare complex (V/Nb)-pentoxides. Different spectroscopic methods, for example UV/VIS, resonance raman, infrared, temperature dependant 51V NMR and two dimensional 1H or 13C NMR, are used to elucidate structural details. It can be shown that the alkoxide precursor is a mixture of monomers and dimers which exchange very quickly. 2 % [V(O)Nb(OPr)8] (Pr = propyl) exists in a 0.1 molar solution. This complex is in equilibrium with V(O)(OPr)3 and Nb(OPr)5. Nb(OPr)5 itself exchanges with [Nb(OPr)5]2. For nuclear magnetic resonance experiments the exchange has to be slowed down using low temperatures.Controlled hydrolysis at 5 °C of a mixture of V(O)(OPr)3 and [Nb(OEt)5]2 in propanol leads to a clear transparent gel. The ratio of V : Nb is 1 : 1, 1 : 4.5 or 1 : 9, and oxalic acid is used as a chelating agent. Moreover, a dried product of a frozen solution of ammonium vanadate and ammonium oxyoxalatoniobate in water is found to be an appropriate precursor for the fore-mentioned oxides. Thermal decomposition of the gels and of the freeze dried products is monitored thermoanalytically and mass spectrometrically.The compositions of the resulting phases are examined and compared with the composition obtained via conventional synthesis (sintering of powder mixtures). Phases VNbxO(2.5+2.5x) (x = 1, 4.5 and 9) are obtained through the sol-gel technique and freeze drying at distinctly lower temperatures. VNbO5 crystallizes between 400 and 650 °C and V4Nb18O55 between 550 and 750 °C. A clean, non-reduced phase, VNb9O25, crystallizes above 1100 °C in oxygen. Below this temperature, solid solutions of V2O5 in TT- or M-Nb2O5 exist. Conventionally, pure VNbO5 is not obtainable. Some sol-gel synthesized products have the advantage of a more complete phase formation. In this way, a new phase of composition VNb9O25 can be found. The phase is homöotypic to M-Nb2O5.An additional advantage of the sol-gel synthesis lies in relatively high surface areas. Adversely, carbon remaining from the alcohol groups favours the thermodynamically stable phase VNb9O25 over the phase V4Nb18O55. Consequently, the freeze drying method seems to be the best way to get metastable phases in the system V2O5/x·Nb2O5.The formation of the complex oxides is controlled through the thermodynamics at phase boundaries. Therefore, to get mixed phases, structurally similar starting materials are preferred. In other words, using V2O5 and TT-Nb2O5 as starting materials the mixed phase similar to TT-Nb2O5 can be obtained. B-Nb2O5 as precursor yields another mixed phase similar to B-Nb2O5. In this work, this effect is called the "structure directing effect". It is explained through the consumption of free enthalpy at the phase boundaries.As an additional point, catalytic activities of the complex oxides are examined. Because of a synergism of the known good activity of V2O5 and the good selectivity of Nb2O5, a strongly enhanced activity of the mixed oxides is found. Large surface areas further improve the activity. Connections between oxygen partial pressure, band gap and catalytic activity are found. A dilution of V2O5 in Nb2O5 down to 10 mol-% also causes an enhancement of catalytic activity. / In der Arbeit werden durch die Synthese gemischter Alkoxide der Gesamtzusammensetzung [V(O)Nbx(OR)(3+5x)] (R = n-C3H7 und C2H5, x = 1, 4,5 und 9) sowie gefriergetrockneter Pulver Ausgangssubstanzen für gemischte, komplexe Vanadium- und Nioboxide erhalten. Untersuchungen mittels UV/VIS-, Resonanz-Raman- und IR-Spektroskopie sowie temperaturabhängiger 51V- und zweidimensionaler 1H-/13C NMR-Spektroskopie zeigen, dass es sich bei der Alkoxid-Vorstufe um ein Gemisch aus monomeren und dimeren Einheiten handelt, die in schnellem Gleichgewicht miteinander stehen. So liegt [V(O)Nb(OPr)8] als Donorkomplex vor, der im Gleichgewicht mit VO(OPr)3 und Nb(OPr)5 steht. Nb(OPr)5 steht wiederum im Gleichgewicht mit [Nb(OPr)5]2. Die Bildung und der Zerfall des Donorkomplexes erfolgen bei Raumtemperatur so schnell, dass er nur durch UV/VIS- und Resonanz-Raman-Spektroskopie sichtbar wird; bei der Kernresonanzspektroskopie muss der Austausch durch tiefe Temperaturen verlangsamt werden.Mittels kontrollierter Hydrolyse einer Mischung aus VO(OPr)3 und [Nb(OEt)5]2 in Propanol mit Oxalsäure als Chelatbildner und der Verlangsamung der Kondensation über die Erniedrigung der Temperatur wird ein homogenes, transparentes Gel aus V2O5 und Nb2O5 hergestellt. Daneben wird durch eine Lösung aus Ammoniumvanadat und Ammoniumoxyoxalatoniobat ein für die Gefriertrocknung geeigneter Precursor zur Synthese der Oxidphasen gefunden. Die Zersetzung des Gels und der gefriergetrockneten Pulver werden mittels DTA, TG und Massenspektrometrie untersucht und die Phasenausbildung mit der Reaktion von konventionellen Festkörpergemengen verglichen.Die dabei entstehenden metastabilen und thermodynamisch stabilen Phasen VNbxO(2,5+2,5x) (x = 1, 4,5 und 9) sind durch das Sol-Gel-Verfahren sowie durch die Gefriertrocknung bei deutlich niedrigeren Temperaturen und mit geringerem Fremdphasenanteil als bei der konventionellen Synthese erhältlich. VNbO5 existiert bis 650 °C, V4Nb18O55 bis 750 °C, darüber wandelt sich jede Zusammensetzung in VNb9O25 bzw. in verschiedene Nb2O5-Modifikationen und V2O5 um. Die Sol-Gel-Methode liefert im Vergleich zur Gefriertrocknung bei 900-1100 °C den Vorteil der schnelleren Phasenausbildung durch die größere Homogenität der Vorstufe. So erhält man Zwischenstufen, die sonst nur mit Beimengungen zu synthetisieren sind. In diesem Zusammenhang kann erstmalig eine zu M-Nb2O5 homöotype Verbindung der Zusammensetzung VNb9O25 erhalten werden. Ein weiterer Vorteil der Sol-Gel-Synthese ist der Erhalt größerer Oberflächen nach der Zersetzung. Nachteilig erscheinen jedoch bei einer Synthese bei tiefen Temperaturen (500-800 °C) die Alkoholatreste. So entstehen wesentlich eher die thermodynamisch begünstigten Phasen, z. B. VNb9O25 vor V4Nb18O55 und V4Nb18O55 vor VNbO5. Weiterhin macht sich die komplizierte Präparation der Gele bemerkbar; daher stellt im Allgemeinen die Gefriertrockung die Methode der Wahl dar.Die Ausbildung der komplexen Oxide erfolgt stark geprägt durch die Thermodynamik an den Phasengrenzen. Daher erfolgt eine bevorzugte Ausbildung strukturähnlicher Mischphasen. Diese erstmalig in diesem Ausmaß festgestellte Tatsache wird in der Arbeit der Strukturdirigierende Effekt genannt. Eine Erklärung dieses Effektes erfolgt anhand des Verbrauchs der Freien Enthalpie an den Phasengrenzen.Aufgrund eines Synergismus der Eigenschaften von V2O5 und Nb2O5 bei der oxidativen Dehydrierung von Propan zu Propen (relativ hohe katalytische Aktivität von V2O5 und hohe Selektivität von Nb2O5) wird eine überproportional hohe katalytische Aktivität bei den Mischoxiden erhalten. Die durch die unkonventionellen Methoden erhaltenen großen Oberflächen verbessern die Aktivität weiter. Es können Zusammenhänge festgestellt werden zwischen der Sauerstoffabgabetendenz, der Redoxkraft, der Bandlücke der Mischoxide und der katalytischen Aktivität. Die Einzigartigkeit des Nb2O5-Wirtsgitters bewirkt bei der Verdünnung von V2O5 darin eine hohe katalytische Leistungssteigerung.

Ce travail est relatif à la synthèse et à la caractérisation d’oxydes mixtes Pr1-zCezO2-y et Pr1-xZrxO2-y. Différentes compositions chimiques associées à une valence mixte Pr4+/Pr3+ concomitant à un taux précis de lacunes d’oxygènes ont été isolées tant pour les composés à l’état oxydé que pour ces derniers réduits sous Ar/H2. A l’état réduit, différentes surstructures de la maille fluorine ont été caractérisées par diffraction des RX et de neutrons. Sur la base de mesures magnétiques, d’analyses par spectroscopie d’absorption X (XANES-EXAFS) aux seuils K du Zr et LIII du Ce/Pr et d’analyses thermogravimétriques et/ou TPR (Temperature Programmed Reduction), les évolutions des taux de Pr4+/Pr3+ dans cette série ont été déterminées. Enfin, des mesures in-situ sous atmosphère réductrice par diffraction de neutrons et EELS (Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy) ont été réalisées dans l’objectif de corréler compositions chimiques- édifices structuraux et propriétés de réductibilité. / This work deals with the synthesis and the characterization of Pr1-zCezO2-y and Pr1-xZrxO2-y oxides. Various chemical compositions associated with mixed valence state Pr4+/Pr3+ concomitant to precise oxygen vacancies rate were isolated for compounds in both oxidized and reduced compounds. In the reduced state, different superstructures of the fluorine network were characterized by X-ray and neutrons diffraction. On the basis of magnetic measurements, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XANES-EXAFS) at Zr K-edge and Pr and Ce LII/III-edges and the thermogravimetric analyses and\or TPR (Temperature Programmed Reduction), evolutions of Pr4+/Pr3+ rates in this series were estimated. Finally, in-situ measurements under reducing atmosphere by neutrons diffraction and EELS (Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy) were realized to correlate chemical compositions- structural features and reducibility properties.

Ces travaux de thèse ont pour vocation d'étudier des oxydes mixtes Ce1-x-yZrxPryO2-z afin de corréler composition chimique-structure avec les propriétés de réductibilité/mobilité ionique de l'oxygène associées aux performances catalytiques pour l'oxydation du CO et du propane, en conditions essence et Diesel. La connaissance de la quantité de terres rares au degré d'oxydation +4 a été déterminante. Notamment, plus le taux de Pr4+ est important, plus le composé est réductible et plus la mobilité de l'oxygène s'accroît. L'évaluation du coefficient de diffusion de l'oxygène D* a montré que sa valeur devenait élevée, rivalisant ainsi avec les meilleurs conducteurs ioniques de l'oxygène à basse température. Les échanges isotopiques de l'oxygène permettent de montrer que la vitesse d'échange croît quand le taux de Pr augmente. L'étude de la combustion du propane sur ces oxydes a montré qu'une bonne mobilité de l'oxygène permettait d'améliorer les performances catalytiques. Ainsi, l'oxyde de composition Ce0,45Zr0,1Pr0,45O2-x (CZP45) présente les meilleures propriétés pré-citées et l'activité catalytique la plus élevée. L'oxyde CZP45 a donc été imprégné de Pd afin d'être comparé à deux catalyseurs utilisés industriellement et à iso-teneur en Pd, dispersée sur ?-Al2O3 (Diesel) et Ce0,5Zr0,5O2-x (essence). En régime Diesel, Pd-CZP45, après une étape initiale de réduction, présente une meilleure activité catalytique à basse température que Pd-?-Al2O3 pour l'oxydation du propane. Nous avons expliqué ces excellentes performances par la présence de clusters de Pd2+/Pd° finement dispersés sur l'oxyde (CZP45) et par la capacité du catalyseur à adsorber et conduire l'oxygène / This work describes characterizations of Ce1-x-yZrxPryO2-z mixed oxides to link their chemical composition-structure with their reducibility/oxygen mobility. These latter properties were correlated with their catalytic activity for the oxidation of CO and propane, both in stoichiometric (gasoline) and lean-burn (Diesel) conditions. The determination of the quantity of rare earth at the +4 oxidation degree, especially for Pr4+, has been of paramount importance. Actually, the higher the Pr4+ rate, the more reducible is the oxide and the better is the oxygen mobility. The evaluation of the diffusion coefficient of the oxygen D* highlighted high values, similar to those of the best reported oxygen ionic conductors at low temperature. Isotopic exchanges showed that the oxygen exchange rate increases with the Pr loading in the oxide. The catalytic activity for propane combustion of these oxides increases with their oxygen mobility. Finally, CZP45 (Ce0,45Zr0,1Pr0,45O2-x) exhibits the best pre-quoted properties as well as the highest catalytic activity. Therefore, CZP45 has been impregnated with Pd. The activity of Pd-CZP45 catalyst was compared with two industrially catalysts containing the same Pd content supported either on ?-Al2O3 (Diesel) or Ce0,5Zr0,5O2-x (gasoline). In Diesel conditions, Pd-CZP45 shows a better low-temperature catalytic activity than Pd-?-Al2O3 for propane oxidation after an initial step of reduction. We have attributed these remarkable performances to the presence of Pd2+/Pd° clusters finely dispersed on the oxide CZP45 and to its ability to adsorb and conduct oxygen

<div>Since as early as the 1920s, dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) has been regarded as a promising oxidizer in rocket propulsion systems. In more recent times, its predecessor, mixed oxides of nitrogen (MON), remains a top contender among oxidizers, due to its unique characteristics such as low freezing temperature and compatibility with common spacecraft materials. Today, these N2O4-based oxidizers are the preferred choice in many upper stages, launch escape systems, reaction control systems, liquid apogee engines, and in-space primary propulsion systems. N2O4-based oxidizers are a key factor in rocket propulsion, and thoroughly understanding their history, development, characteristics, synthesis, and composition analysis are crucial for space exploration today and into the future.<br><br></div><div>To fully understand and predict the physical properties of a MON sample, it is important to measure and quantify its chemical composition. The recommended method for MON composition analysis, as prescribed by the Department of Defense’s Defense Specification (MIL-SPEC) document on N2O4, involves the oxidation of NO and dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3) in the MON sample to determine their amounts. An equation unofficially called the “MIL-SPEC equation” is then used to determine the amount of NO needed to mix with N2O4 to synthesize that particular MON sample. However, no explanation is given as to how the equation was derived, or its significance.<br><br></div><div>This thesis aims to collect and organize key information on the synthesis, handling, and composition analysis of MON propellant. First, the history of development of N2O4-based oxidizers was researched, and current and future uses of N2O4 and MON propellants were identified. Then a method for synthesis and composition analysis was devised and tested. Water contamination was expected of skewing the results, so the process of water contamination was examined analytically. Then a detailed derivation of the MIL-SPEC equation was conducted, to fully understand its mechanics. An attempt was then made to reverse-engineer an unexplained numerical value in the equation, labeled by the author as the “solubility factor”. Several derivations were provided with varying degrees of complexity, producing alternative solubility factors of varying accuracies. Finally, experimental data was applied to these derived, hypothetical solubility factors and the MIL-SPEC solubility factor, with the intent of determining whether improvements could be made to the MON composition determination process.<br><br></div><div>The results suggest that the MIL-SPEC equation is sufficient for providing a relatively accurate measurement of the composition of a MON sample, while also being easy to implement, both in taking the necessary measurements and in conducting the numerical calculation. However, some minor adjustments to the equation could produce consistently more accurate composition measurements without adding any more difficulty or complication.</div>

In this work, mixed alkoxides of general formula [V(O)Nbx(OR)(3+5x)] (R = n-C3H7 and C2H5, x = 1, 4.5 and 9) are obtained. They are used to prepare complex (V/Nb)-pentoxides. Different spectroscopic methods, for example UV/VIS, resonance raman, infrared, temperature dependant 51V NMR and two dimensional 1H or 13C NMR, are used to elucidate structural details. It can be shown that the alkoxide precursor is a mixture of monomers and dimers which exchange very quickly. 2 % [V(O)Nb(OPr)8] (Pr = propyl) exists in a 0.1 molar solution. This complex is in equilibrium with V(O)(OPr)3 and Nb(OPr)5. Nb(OPr)5 itself exchanges with [Nb(OPr)5]2. For nuclear magnetic resonance experiments the exchange has to be slowed down using low temperatures.Controlled hydrolysis at 5 °C of a mixture of V(O)(OPr)3 and [Nb(OEt)5]2 in propanol leads to a clear transparent gel. The ratio of V : Nb is 1 : 1, 1 : 4.5 or 1 : 9, and oxalic acid is used as a chelating agent. Moreover, a dried product of a frozen solution of ammonium vanadate and ammonium oxyoxalatoniobate in water is found to be an appropriate precursor for the fore-mentioned oxides. Thermal decomposition of the gels and of the freeze dried products is monitored thermoanalytically and mass spectrometrically.The compositions of the resulting phases are examined and compared with the composition obtained via conventional synthesis (sintering of powder mixtures). Phases VNbxO(2.5+2.5x) (x = 1, 4.5 and 9) are obtained through the sol-gel technique and freeze drying at distinctly lower temperatures. VNbO5 crystallizes between 400 and 650 °C and V4Nb18O55 between 550 and 750 °C. A clean, non-reduced phase, VNb9O25, crystallizes above 1100 °C in oxygen. Below this temperature, solid solutions of V2O5 in TT- or M-Nb2O5 exist. Conventionally, pure VNbO5 is not obtainable. Some sol-gel synthesized products have the advantage of a more complete phase formation. In this way, a new phase of composition VNb9O25 can be found. The phase is homöotypic to M-Nb2O5.An additional advantage of the sol-gel synthesis lies in relatively high surface areas. Adversely, carbon remaining from the alcohol groups favours the thermodynamically stable phase VNb9O25 over the phase V4Nb18O55. Consequently, the freeze drying method seems to be the best way to get metastable phases in the system V2O5/x·Nb2O5.The formation of the complex oxides is controlled through the thermodynamics at phase boundaries. Therefore, to get mixed phases, structurally similar starting materials are preferred. In other words, using V2O5 and TT-Nb2O5 as starting materials the mixed phase similar to TT-Nb2O5 can be obtained. B-Nb2O5 as precursor yields another mixed phase similar to B-Nb2O5. In this work, this effect is called the &amp;quot;structure directing effect&amp;quot;. It is explained through the consumption of free enthalpy at the phase boundaries.As an additional point, catalytic activities of the complex oxides are examined. Because of a synergism of the known good activity of V2O5 and the good selectivity of Nb2O5, a strongly enhanced activity of the mixed oxides is found. Large surface areas further improve the activity. Connections between oxygen partial pressure, band gap and catalytic activity are found. A dilution of V2O5 in Nb2O5 down to 10 mol-% also causes an enhancement of catalytic activity. / In der Arbeit werden durch die Synthese gemischter Alkoxide der Gesamtzusammensetzung [V(O)Nbx(OR)(3+5x)] (R = n-C3H7 und C2H5, x = 1, 4,5 und 9) sowie gefriergetrockneter Pulver Ausgangssubstanzen für gemischte, komplexe Vanadium- und Nioboxide erhalten. Untersuchungen mittels UV/VIS-, Resonanz-Raman- und IR-Spektroskopie sowie temperaturabhängiger 51V- und zweidimensionaler 1H-/13C NMR-Spektroskopie zeigen, dass es sich bei der Alkoxid-Vorstufe um ein Gemisch aus monomeren und dimeren Einheiten handelt, die in schnellem Gleichgewicht miteinander stehen. So liegt [V(O)Nb(OPr)8] als Donorkomplex vor, der im Gleichgewicht mit VO(OPr)3 und Nb(OPr)5 steht. Nb(OPr)5 steht wiederum im Gleichgewicht mit [Nb(OPr)5]2. Die Bildung und der Zerfall des Donorkomplexes erfolgen bei Raumtemperatur so schnell, dass er nur durch UV/VIS- und Resonanz-Raman-Spektroskopie sichtbar wird; bei der Kernresonanzspektroskopie muss der Austausch durch tiefe Temperaturen verlangsamt werden.Mittels kontrollierter Hydrolyse einer Mischung aus VO(OPr)3 und [Nb(OEt)5]2 in Propanol mit Oxalsäure als Chelatbildner und der Verlangsamung der Kondensation über die Erniedrigung der Temperatur wird ein homogenes, transparentes Gel aus V2O5 und Nb2O5 hergestellt. Daneben wird durch eine Lösung aus Ammoniumvanadat und Ammoniumoxyoxalatoniobat ein für die Gefriertrocknung geeigneter Precursor zur Synthese der Oxidphasen gefunden. Die Zersetzung des Gels und der gefriergetrockneten Pulver werden mittels DTA, TG und Massenspektrometrie untersucht und die Phasenausbildung mit der Reaktion von konventionellen Festkörpergemengen verglichen.Die dabei entstehenden metastabilen und thermodynamisch stabilen Phasen VNbxO(2,5+2,5x) (x = 1, 4,5 und 9) sind durch das Sol-Gel-Verfahren sowie durch die Gefriertrocknung bei deutlich niedrigeren Temperaturen und mit geringerem Fremdphasenanteil als bei der konventionellen Synthese erhältlich. VNbO5 existiert bis 650 °C, V4Nb18O55 bis 750 °C, darüber wandelt sich jede Zusammensetzung in VNb9O25 bzw. in verschiedene Nb2O5-Modifikationen und V2O5 um. Die Sol-Gel-Methode liefert im Vergleich zur Gefriertrocknung bei 900-1100 °C den Vorteil der schnelleren Phasenausbildung durch die größere Homogenität der Vorstufe. So erhält man Zwischenstufen, die sonst nur mit Beimengungen zu synthetisieren sind. In diesem Zusammenhang kann erstmalig eine zu M-Nb2O5 homöotype Verbindung der Zusammensetzung VNb9O25 erhalten werden. Ein weiterer Vorteil der Sol-Gel-Synthese ist der Erhalt größerer Oberflächen nach der Zersetzung. Nachteilig erscheinen jedoch bei einer Synthese bei tiefen Temperaturen (500-800 °C) die Alkoholatreste. So entstehen wesentlich eher die thermodynamisch begünstigten Phasen, z. B. VNb9O25 vor V4Nb18O55 und V4Nb18O55 vor VNbO5. Weiterhin macht sich die komplizierte Präparation der Gele bemerkbar; daher stellt im Allgemeinen die Gefriertrockung die Methode der Wahl dar.Die Ausbildung der komplexen Oxide erfolgt stark geprägt durch die Thermodynamik an den Phasengrenzen. Daher erfolgt eine bevorzugte Ausbildung strukturähnlicher Mischphasen. Diese erstmalig in diesem Ausmaß festgestellte Tatsache wird in der Arbeit der Strukturdirigierende Effekt genannt. Eine Erklärung dieses Effektes erfolgt anhand des Verbrauchs der Freien Enthalpie an den Phasengrenzen.Aufgrund eines Synergismus der Eigenschaften von V2O5 und Nb2O5 bei der oxidativen Dehydrierung von Propan zu Propen (relativ hohe katalytische Aktivität von V2O5 und hohe Selektivität von Nb2O5) wird eine überproportional hohe katalytische Aktivität bei den Mischoxiden erhalten. Die durch die unkonventionellen Methoden erhaltenen großen Oberflächen verbessern die Aktivität weiter. Es können Zusammenhänge festgestellt werden zwischen der Sauerstoffabgabetendenz, der Redoxkraft, der Bandlücke der Mischoxide und der katalytischen Aktivität. Die Einzigartigkeit des Nb2O5-Wirtsgitters bewirkt bei der Verdünnung von V2O5 darin eine hohe katalytische Leistungssteigerung.