The diploma thesis aims to present newly proposed methods of dynamic assessment of executive functions and evaluate their benefits through a pilot study. The theoretical section introduces dynamic approach to assessment and its methods and also describes the area of executive functions. The research part presents the proposed tests, focusing on the assessment of planning skills, cognitive flexibility, logical reasoning, working memory and self- monitoring. Their principle is the method of graduated prompts. The research sample used for the study consisted of thirty respondents aged from eight to fifteen years. The respondents were divided into two groups with the same number of participants. The first group included children with special educational needs, the second group involved intact respondents. The results of the study were evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively. Within the quantitative part, the number of necessary prompts and completed items was compared in both groups. The qualitative part focused on a detailed analysis of diagnostically relevant information obtained using the aforementioned methods. The results of the quantitative part of the research showed that the groups differ from each other neither in the number of graduated prompts required, nor in the number of completed...

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Previous investigations into executive functions among athletes, particularly in team sports, have reported greater functioning for those in the highest level of competition. One such sport that has received less attention in research is ice hockey. The present study aimed to compare the performances of ice hockey players in different levels of competition on measures of inhibition, shifting, and updating. Furthermore, it hypothesised that athletes in higher competitive divisions would outperform those in lower divisions. With this aim in mind, 17 ice hockey players from different divisions of the Swedish national hockey league were recruited and completed a flanker task, local-global task, and 3-back task, as well as two alternate tasks featuring hockey-specific stimuli. Comparisons between high-skill and low-skill athletes were insignificant for inhibition and updating measures, while the comparison for shifting favoured low-skill athletes. This finding did not extend to a comparison between elite and non-elite players. The results do not support the given hypothesis, and future investigations should recruit a larger sample in order to further clarify the findings of low-skill outperforming high-skill athletes. / Tidigare undersökningar av exekutiva funktioner hos idrottare, särskilt inom lagsporter, har påvisat bättre förmågor hos deltagande i de högsta divisionerna. En lagsport där mindre fokus har lagts inom forskningen är ishockey. Denna studie syftade att jämföra presterande av ishockeyspelare inom olika tävlingsdivisioner på test av inhibering, kognitivt växlande, och uppdatering. Studien hade som hypotes att spelare i högre divisioner bör prestera bättre i jämförelse med de i lägre divisioner. 17 ishockeyspelare rekryterades från olika divisioner inom den svenska hockeyligan och de utförde ett flanker-test, ett local-global-test och ett 3-back-test. De utförde även två alternativa uppgifter med hockeyspecifika stimuli. Jämförelserna mellan ”high-skill” och ”low-skill”-spelare var icke-signifikanta för inhiberings- och uppdateringsmåtten och jämförelsen på kognitivt växlande påvisade att ”low-skill”-spelare presterade bättre. Detta påvisades dock inte för elitspelare mot icke-elitspelare. Resultaten ger inte stöd till hypotesen, och ytterligare studier med en större datainsamling bör vidare examinera om spelare i lägre divisioner presterar bättre i jämförelse med de i högre divisioner.

Syfte: Syftet är att undersöka kvinnors upplevelser av sin skolgång, mer specifikt kvinnor som fått ADHD-diagnos senare i livet. Teori: Studien utgår ifrån en kvalitativ och induktiv ansats med KASAM som teoretisk referensram. Metod: Genomförande av studien skedde utifrån semistrukturerade intervjuer med åtta kvinnor i åldern 22-56 år diagnostiserade med ADHD mellan 18-54 års ålder. Intervjuerna, som spelades in och sedan transkriberades, varade mellan 45 till 60 minuter. Resultat: Resultatet visar att det för respondenterna har varit en utmaning att ta sig igenom grundskolan på grund av funktionsnedsättningen ADHD. Det innebar psykiska pålagringarna av att vara annorlunda, vilket respondenterna bär med sig i livet. Respondenterna upplevde även att skolans kunskapskrav inte var anpassade till deras förmågor, vilket innebar en avsaknad av stöd i skolan och av omgivningen. Diagnostiseringen förde med sig att respondenterna upplevde en lättnad och acceptans. Slutsats: Framtida forskning bör ge en djupare kunskap och förståelse utifrån vad som är unikt hos flickor och kvinnor med ADHD. För att öka förståelse och uppmärksamhet från omgivningen, med hjälp med strategier och stöd för att få så bra förutsättningar som möjligt för att kunna prestera i skolan. Detta skulle kunna minska risken av att drabbas av samsjuklighet i form av psykisk ohälsa och beroendeproblematik samt öka känslan av sammanhang. / Purpose: The purpose is to investigate women's experiences of their schooling, more specifically women who received an ADHD diagnosis later in life. Theory: The study is based on a qualitative and inductive approach with KASAM as a theoretical frame of reference. Method: Implementation of the study was based on semi-structured interviews with eight women aged 22-56 diagnosed with ADHD between the ages of 18-54. The interviews, which were recorded and then transcribed, lasted between 45 and 60 minutes. Results: The results show that it has been a challenge for the respondents to get through primary school due to the disability ADHD. It meant the psychological implications of being different, which the respondents carry with them in life. The respondents also felt that the school's knowledge requirements were not adapted to their abilities, which meant a lack of support in the school and in the environment. The diagnosis brought with it that the respondents experienced a sense of relief and acceptance. Conclusion: Future research should provide a deeper knowledge and understanding based on what is unique in girls and women with ADHD. To increase understanding and attention from the environment, with the help of strategies and support to get the best conditions possible to be able to perform in school. This could reduce the risk of suffering from comorbidity in the form of mental illness and addiction problems and increase the feeling of context.

[pt] O envelhecimento cada vez mais acentuado das populações no Brasil (1) e no mundo (2) tem tornado mais evidente o problema do declínio cognitivo em idosos. Com o passar dos anos, alguns indivíduos podem apresentar a perda da capacidade de resolver novos problemas, ou de se adaptar a imprevistos. Na Neuropsicologia, as chamadas Funções Executivas são responsáveis pelo desempenho do indivíduo neste tipo de situação. Para detectar este tipo de dificuldade, mesmo em suas fases iniciais, há diversas baterias de testes que o psicólogo pode aplicar. E, como suporte ao tratamento, várias atividades podem estimular estas funções e melhorar o desempenho cognitivo. No mundo dos jogos digitais, diversos são os aplicativos que prometem treinar o cérebro, mas em geral estes games consistem de uma série de pequenas atividades isoladas. Há um consenso na comunidade científica de que a interação social é benéfica para a saúde mental dos idosos. A diversidade de situações enfrentadas pelo indivíduo neste tipo de interação garante que, entre outros benefícios, as habilidades de Atualização, Alternância e Inibição sejam treinadas, melhorando as funções executivas do idoso. Este trabalho propõe a criação de um jogo sério (serious game), porém lúdico e divertido, para identificação da perda de eficiência no uso das Funções Executivas e, possivelmente, no treinamento das mesmas. O atrativo do jogo está na flexibilidade e intensidade das tarefas propostas, que se inserem em uma narrativa lúdica e contêm atividades usuais do dia a dia das pessoas. O tema de planejar e realizar uma festa virtual de 80 anos mostra-se particularmente adequado para a investigação em questão e permite a utilização de imprevistos nas tarefas propostas. Quanto ao planejamento da reatividade emocional dos idosos, o jogo permitirá que a dificuldade e o nível de imprevistos sejam ajustados de forma a evitar qualquer tipo de estresse ao idoso. O nível de dificuldade das tarefas e diversos outros ajustes podem ser feitos por um participante que age como controlador ou mediador do jogo, papel possivelmente exercido por um psicólogo. Outra novidade desta proposta é a implementação de um jogo em modo multiplayer, tornando-se possível observar o papel da interação social no diagnóstico e no tratamento do déficit cognitivo, ou mesmo, a relação entre a disposição do indivíduo em participar de atividades sociais e a perda de funções executivas. / [en] The increasingly accentuated aging of populations in Brazil (1) and the world (2) has made the cognitive decline in the elderly more evident. As the years go by, some individuals may lose the ability to solve new problems or adapt to unforeseen events. In Neuropsychology the Executive Functions of the Brain (EF) are responsible for the performance in this kind of tasks. The loss of efficiency in the Executive Functions is a natural result of the aging process. However, excessive loss of EF can lead to Mild Cognitive Impairment and, in more advanced stages, to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer s disease. To detect this kind of impairment, even in its initial stages, there are several test bateries that the psychologist can apply. And, as support for treatment, several activities can stimulate these functions and improve cognitive performance. In the world of digital games, many applications promise to train the brain, but most of these games consist of small isolated tasks. There is a consensus in the scientific Community that social interaction is beneficial to the mental health of old individuals. The diversity of situations faced by the individual in this kind of interaction guarantees that, among other benefits, abilities such as Actualization, Alternance and Inibition are trained, helping improve the executive functions of the elderly. This work proposes creating a serious game, yet ludic and fun, to help identify the loss of efficiency in the use of Executive Functions and, possibly, in their training. The game s lure is in its flexibility and the intensity of the quests presented to the player. These quests are part of a ludic narrative about everyday activities, such as getting groceries at the market or finding candles for a birthday cake. The game s central theme is to collaborate to the realization of the 80-year birthday party of a friend. As for the emotional reactivity of the old adults that engage the game, it was built with the option to regulate de difficult level. The difficult level that each player faces and several other aspects of the game can be configured by a person that acts as controller or mediator of the game, probably a psychologist. Another innovation of this proposal is implementing the game as a multiplayer game, making it possible to observe the social interaction factor in diagnosing and treating cognitive deficit. Or even the relation between the individual s disposition to engage in social activities and the loss of executive functions.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka eventuella skillnader i grundläggande kognitiva förmågor mellan högpresterande idrottare och amatörer. I denna kvantitativa tvärsnittsstudie samlades datan in från deltagare som rekryterades från ett idrottsgymnasium, en elitklubb och ett antal från personliga kontakter via ett bekvämlighetsurval. 39 deltagare deltog i studien i åldrarna 15-39, 21 högpresterande idrottare (M= 20.48, SD= 5.77) och 18 amatörer (M= 19.44, SD= 4.79). De grundläggande kognitiva förmågorna mättes med fyra kognitiva test: Trail Making Test, The Sustained Attention to Response Task, The Semantic And Phonemic Fluency Test och Digit Symbol Substitution Test. Dessa valdes ut för att mäta uppmärksamhet, bearbetningshastighet och exekutiva funktioner. Resultatet visade en statistisk signifikant skillnad mellan högpresterande idrottare och amatörer i den grundläggande kognitiva förmågan bearbetningshastighet där gruppen av högpresterande idrottare nådde högre värden i mätningarna. Inga signifikanta skillnader uppdagades i de grundläggande kognitiva förmågorna uppmärksamhet och exekutiva funktioner. Studiens resultat indikerar på att framtida forskning bör ta hänsyn till typ av idrott hos atleten i en urvalsprocess för en tydligare jämförelse. Frågan kring skillnader i grundläggande kognitiva förmågor är mer komplex än en uppdelning mellan högpresterande idrottare och amatörer. / The purpose of this study was to investigate possible differences in basic cognitive ability between high-performing and amateur athletes. In this quantitative cross-sectional study the data was collected from participants that were recruited from a highschool, an elite club and through personal contacts. 39 Participants participated in the study ages 15-39, 21 high-performing athletes (M= 20.48, SD= 5.77) and 18 amateur athletes (M=19.44, SD= 4.79). The basic cognitive abilities were measured with four tests: Trail Making Test, The Sustained Attention to Response Task, The Semantic And Phonemic Fluency Test and Digit Symbol Substitution Test. These were selected to measure attention, processing speed, and executive functions. The results showed a statistically significant difference between high-performing athletes and amateur athletes in the basic cognitive ability processing speed where the high-performing athletes showed a higher processing speed than amateur athletes. No significant differences were detected in the basic cognitive abilities of attention and executive functions. The results of the study indicate that future research should take into consideration the type of sport the athlete is involved in for a selection process with a clearer comparison. The differences in basic cognitive abilities is more complex than the comparison between high-performing and amateur athletes.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate to what extent executive functioning has an impact on aggressive and violent behavior contextualized within football supporters. The sample consisted of 142 (111 males and 31 females) football supporters, between 16-71 years old (M=34,58, SD=12,53) who, during the 2022 season of the Swedish football league “Allsvenskan” visited at least one game. Results showed an association between aggressive and violent behavior contextualized within football supporters and certain aspects of executive functions, as well as self-control. The association did not significantly differ depending on frequency of game-day attendance, thus indicating the presence of the association for various subgroups of supporters. The results are in line with previous research on the association between executive functions and aggressive and violent behavior. The present study is one of the few studies adopting a bio-/neurological perspective on football violence. Thus indicating that more research is warranted on this specific topic, as well as a need for a re-evaluation of strategies preventing football violence. / Syftet med studien var att undersöka i vilken utsträckning exekutiva funktioner hos fotbollssupportrar har en inverkan på aggressivt och våldsamt beteende kontextualiserat inom fotbollen. Urvalet bestod av 142 (111 män och 31 kvinnor) fotbollssupportrar mellan 16–71 år (M=34,58, SD=12,53) som under säsongen 2022 i den svenska fotbollsserien “Allsvenskan” besökte minst en match. Resultaten påpekade en association mellan aggressivt och våldsamt beteende inom fotbollen och särskilda aspekter av exekutiva funktioner samt självkontroll. Associationen skiljde sig inte signifikant beroende på besöksfrekvens vid matcher, vilket pekar på att associationen existerar hos flertalet olika typer av supportrar. Resultaten går i linje med tidigare studier som undersökt associationen mellan exekutiva funktioner och aggressivt och våldsamt beteende. Den aktuella studien är en av få studier som applicerat ett bio-/neurologiskt perspektiv på våld inom fotbollen. Detta pekar på behovet av fortsatt forskning inom ämnet samt ett behov av att omvärdera strategierna ämnade att förhindra våld inom fotbollen.

The immune system has been suggested as crucial in brain and psychological functioning. More precisely, immune markers reflecting immune system activity are important for psychological and mental health, as evident by their role in the physiopathology of depression and in the impairment of executive functions. Frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA), an electroencephalographic marker of brain function, has also been linked to such psychopathology and is thought to reflect psychological processes underlying approach- versus withdrawal-related motivation and higher-order inhibitory control. Only a few studies have linked FAA to immune markers but notably found a negative association between IL-6, a pleiotropic proinflammatory cytokine, and FAA. The aim of the present work is thus to study the relationship between various immune markers (including pro-inflammatory cytokines and IL-6) and FAA. 35 healthy young male participants underwent a resting EEG recording and blood sampling from which immune markers were measured. The results did not suggest an association between IL-6 and FAA. No other immune markers were either suggested to be associated to FAA. The complexity of the immune system (e.g., effect of cytokines) is underlined and may explain the results. Despite such results, the implication of true negative correlations between FAA and circulating immune markers, as suggested in previous studies, is discussed in the light of the theoretical models of FAA.

Executive control is a vital cognitive function that facilitates the focussing and shifting of attention, planning and working towards a goal, ignoring distractions, and flexibly responding to novel situations. Disruptions to executive control are seen in many psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, as well as healthy ageing, which can be profoundly detrimental. Despite having many effective and well-validated methodologies for detecting and quantifying these deficits, there are very few treatments — pharmacological or otherwise — for ameliorating executive dysfunction. This lack of progress can partly be blamed on difficulties associated with identifying drugs that enhance cognition in preclinical research. The work in this thesis aimed to expand our understanding of executive dysfunction — as well as the tasks that measure it — in rats. In results presented in chapter three, middle-aged rats demonstrated impaired reversal learning on the standard attentional set-shifting task, but this was treatable with a novel drug targeting the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. The age impairments seen in this experiment were similar to those previously found in young rats with orbital prefrontal cortex (OFC) lesions. The results of chapter four expanded on this similarity to show that, along with reversal deficits, young OFC-lesioned rats are impaired at forming attentional sets when tested on a modified task. In chapter five, another modified set-shifting task revealed that middle-aged rats also suffer from impaired set-formation, but their reversal learning impairments only manifest before attentional set has been formed — not after. Finally, in chapter six, the putative cognitive enhancer modafinil was found to exacerbate middle-aged rats' reversal learning deficit, but it also enhanced their subsequent ability to form attentional set. These experiments reveal that modifying the rat attentional set-shifting task can sometimes make it a more effective tool for testing cognitive enhancers in preclinical settings.