Il est communément admis que les adultes résolvent les problèmes arithmétiques simples (e.g., 3+2, 3X2, 32) en récupérant directement le résultat de ces problèmes en mémoire. Des études récentes suggèrent cependant que certains de ces problèmes (e.g., additions et soustractions) seraient résolus par l'application de procédures de calcul automatisées reposant sur des mécanismes spatio-attentionnels. Cette thèse avait pour objectif de tester cette hypothèse. Une première étude comportementale a montré que résoudre des additions et des soustractions simples s'accompagne de déplacements horizontaux de l'attention (vers la droite pour les additions et vers la gauche pour les soustractions) chez l'adulte. Ceci confirme la présence de procédures automatisées qui seraient de nature spatiale et pourraient prendre la forme de déplacements attentionnels sur une ligne numérique mentale. Deux autres études ont permis d'explorer les bases neurales de ces procédures automatisées et leur développement grâce à l'imagerie par résonnance magnétique fonctionnelle. Les résultats indiquent que l'automatisation de ces procédures de calcul au cours de l'éducation dépendrait initialement de mécanismes spatiaux supportés par l'hippocampe chez l'enfant. Chez l'adulte, en revanche, ces procédures automatisées seraient associées aux régions corticales impliquées dans l'orientation de l'attention. Cette thèse confirme l'existence de procédures spatiales automatisées dans l'arithmétique élémentaire et amène à reconsidérer les modèles classiques d'apprentissage de l'arithmétique / It is commonly accepted that educated adults solve simple arithmetic problems (e.g., 3+2, 3X2, 32) by directly retrieving the result from memory. However, recent studies suggest that some of these problems (e.g., addition and subtraction) may instead be solved by means of automated calculation procedures relying on spatial attentional mechanisms. The goal of this thesis was to test that hypothesis. In a first behavioral study, we showed that solving simple addition and subtraction problems is accompanied by horizontal shifts of attention (rightward for addition and leftward for subtraction) in adults. This confirms the existence of automated procedures that may be spatial in nature and take the form of attentional shifts along a mental number line. In two other studies, we explored the neural bases of these automated procedures and their development by using functional magnetic resonance imaging. The results showed that the automatization of calculation procedures over development may initially depend on spatial mechanisms supported by the hippocampus in children. In educated adults, however, automated procedures are associated with cortical regions involved in the orienting of spatial attention. This thesis confirms the existence of automated spatial procedures in simple arithmetic and calls upon a reconsideration of the classical models of arithmetic learning

Syftet med studien är att få inblick i hur eleverna i åk 7 och 8 uppfattar likvärdiga bråktal, förkortning och förlängning samt hur de tolkar sambandet mellan förlängning och multiplikation, och förkortning och division. Syftet är även att undersöka elevernas kunskaper om bråktalsaspekter med fokus på bråktal som ett tal som har ett eget värde på tallinjen. Studien är förankrad i teoretiska modeller om hur bråk kan förstås, teorier om lärande samt tidigare forskning med liknande frågeställningar. Det tillvägagångssätt som valts är flermetodsforskning som omfattar kvantitativ metod för insamling och analys av enkät och kvalitativ metod för insamling och analys av intervjuer med elever. Elevernas lösningar och svar på frågorna i enkäten och intervjuerna gav mycket kvalitativ information att analysera. Analysen besvarade mina frågeställningar och jag fick en inblick i hur eleverna i åk 7 och 8 uppfattar likvärdiga bråktal, förkortning och förlängning som begrepp och beräkningsmetod. Genom elevernas lösningar och svar fick jag även en inblick i på vilket sätt eleverna tänker och ser matematik, specifikt bråktal. Studien indikerade att eleverna har tillräckliga kunskaper om bråktal som del av en hel, medan bristande kunskaper kan sammanfattas som att eleverna inte behärskar bråktalsbegrepp och vad täljare och nämnare representerar. Studien visade också att eleverna har otillräcklig kunskap om likvärdiga bråktal och att bråktal kan skrivas på oändligt många sätt utan att värdet förändras. Dessutom hade de svårigheter med förlängning och förkortning. Att förstå alla dessa begrepp är nödvändigt för att operera med tal i bråkform. Dessa kunskapsbrister ledde till att de använde felaktiga strategier när de behandlade bråktal i uppgifterna. Felaktiga strategier kan sammanfattas som att eleverna använde sina gamla kunskaper om naturliga tal och försökte anpassa svaren tillden nya situationen. / The aim of this study was to get insight into how the pupils in years 7 and 8 understand equivalent fractions, reducing and raising, and into how they interpret the connections between raising and multiplication and between reducing and division. The aim was also to investigate pupils' knowledge of fractional aspects with a focus on fraction as a number that has its own value on the number line. The study was based on theoretical models of how fractions can be understood, theories of learning and previous research into similar issues. The approach chosen was multi-method research, which includes quantitative methods in the collection and analysis of questionnaires and qualitative methods in the collection and analysis of interviews with pupils. Both the pupils' solutions and answers to the questions in the questionnaire and the interviews they provided gave very useful qualitative information to analyse. The analysis answered my questions, and I obtained an insight into how the pupils in years 7 and 8 understand equivalent fractions, reducing and raising as concepts and calculation methods. Through the pupils' solutions and answers, I gleaned an insight into the way in which the pupils think and see mathematics, specifically in fractions. The study indicated that pupils have sufficient knowledge of fractions as a part of a whole, while shortfalls in knowledge were identified in some pupils not mastering the concept of fractions or what numerators and denominators represent. The study also showed that some pupils have insufficient knowledge of equivalent fractions and the fact that fractions can be written in an infinite number of ways without this changing the value. In addition, they had difficulty with raising and reducing. Understanding all these concepts is necessary for pupils to operate effectively with fractions. The areas where they lacked knowledge led them to use incorrect strategies when dealing with fractions in the data. Incorrect strategies were identified pupils using their old knowledge of natural numbers and trying to adapt the answers to the new situation.

Ein bedeutender Effekt der numerischen Kognition, der Operational Momentum Effekt, beschreibt die Beobachtung, dass Proband*innen das Ergebnis von Additionen überschätzen und das Ergebnis von Subtraktionen unterschätzen. Diverse theoretische Modelle wurden vorgebracht, um diesen Effekt zu erklären. Diese Modelle unterscheiden sich in Bezug darauf, ob sie räumliche Prozesse während des Kopfrechnens annehmen. Einige Studien haben seitdem Belege für eine Verknüpfung zwischen räumlicher Verarbeitung und Kopfrechnen liefern können. Die vorliegende Dissertation zielt darauf ab, räumliche Aufmerksamkeitsverschiebungen beim Kopfrechnen in drei Studien (Studie 1, Studie 3, Studie 4) und einer Kontrollstudie (Studie 2) vertieft zu untersuchen. Studie 1 zeigt, dass zwei-stellige Additionen mit Aufmerksamkeitsverschiebungen nach rechts assoziiert sind, während zwei-stellige Subtraktionen nicht mit Verschiebungen nach links einhergehen. Studie 3 liefert Hinweise für Aufmerksamkeitsverschiebungen in der Antwortphase von approximativen Rechenprozessen. Jedoch wurden ich dieser Studie keine Verschiebungen im Zeitfenster zwischen der Aufgabenpräsentation und der Antwortselektion gefunden. In Studie 4 wurden mittels steady-state visuell evozierten Potenzialen keinerlei räumliche Verschiebungen, sowohl im arithmetischen Kontext als auch in der Kontrollaufgabe gefunden. Die Kontrollstudie (Studie 2) untersuchte den Einfluss von kognitiver Belastung auf räumliche Aufmerksamkeit, wobei jedoch kein solcher Einfluss nachweisbar war. Zusammen unterstützen die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Dissertation die Hypothese, dass räumliche und arithmetische Verarbeitung funktionell assoziiert sind (Studie 1, Studie 3). Andere Ergebnisse sind jedoch nicht so einfach mit den bestehenden Theorien vereinbar. Die Nulleffekte von Studie 2 und 4 betonen die Rolle methodischer Aspekte bei der Untersuchung räumlicher Aufmerksamkeitsverschiebungen, wie zum Beispiel die Wahl geeigneter Baseline-Aufgaben. / A hallmark effect of numerical cognition, the operational momentum effect, describes the finding that participants tend to overestimate the result of addition problems and underestimate the result of subtraction problems. Several theoretical accounts proposed to explain that effect differ with regard to whether they assume spatial contributions to mental arithmetic. Several studies have since then provided evidence for an association between spatial processing and mental arithmetic. The present dissertation aimed at further enlarging upon this knowledge by investigating spatial biases in mental arithmetic via several behavioural and neurophysiological experimental paradigms. This thesis comprises three studies (Study 1, Study 3, Study 4) and a control study (Study 2). Study 1 demonstrated that spatial biases to the right can be observed in the context of two-digit addition processing, while no biases to the left were observed for two-digit subtraction processing. Study 3 provided evidence for spatial biases during the response stage of approximate arithmetic processing. Yet, no biases were observed in the time window between the task presentation and response selection. In Study 4, no biases could be measured via steady-state visually evoked potentials, neither in an arithmetic context nor in a control task. The control study (Study 2) investigated the impact of cognitive load on spatial biases. Still, no such impact could be shown in Study 2. Together, the results of the present dissertation provide support for the notion of a functional association between spatial and arithmetic processing (Study 1, Study 3). Nevertheless, several other findings are difficult to reconcile with the existing theoretical accounts. This implies that other mechanisms might be involved. Finally, the null effects of Study 2 and 4 highlighted the role of methodological aspects, like the choice of appropriate baseline tasks, when investigating attentional biases.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-27T16:58:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertacao_marisa_dias.pdf: 305016 bytes, checksum: 8c51ea350b061d06dcc177b7f6a7a452 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-04-12 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The study investigated concept image and concept definition related to the properties of the number line, and particularly the notion of density. The subjects were 45 teachers of secondary school mathematics (students aged 11-16 years) from São Paulo (Brazil). It was hypothesised that the teachers conceptions would match those of students in the age range that they teach. In order to validate this hypothesis, a diagnostic test was developed and the results of the teachers were compared with results obtained in both national and international studies of students conceptions. Analysis confirmed the hypothesis and indicated that both the concept image and concept definition used by the teachers were not coherent with formal. A sub-set of four teachers also participated in interviews developed with the aim of creating situations in which potential conflict factors would become cognitive conflict factors. Teachers reactions during these interviews indicated that these situations helped them to enhance to a higher intellectual stages in their reasoning about the number line / Esta pesquisa investigou conceito imagem e conceito definição relacionados às propriedades da reta real e, particularmente, à noção de densidade. Os sujeitos foram 45 professores de matemática do ensino fundamental e médio de São Paulo (Brasil). A hipótese foi que concepções dos professores seriam as mesmas apresentadas por estudantes, desse mesmo segmento de ensino. Para validarmos esta hipótese, desenvolvemos um teste diagnóstico e comparamos os resultados dos professores com os obtidos em pesquisas nacionais e internacionais sobre as concepções de estudantes. A investigação confirmou a hipótese e evidenciou a existência de conceitos imagem e definição não coerentes com o formal. Um grupo de quatro professores também participou de entrevistas desenvolvidas com o objetivo de criar situações nas quais fatores de conflito potencial tornassem fatores de conflito cognitivo. As reações dos professores durante essas entrevistas indicaram que essas situações possibilitam-lhes alcançar estágios intelectuais mais elevados em relação à reta real

Auditory graphs and active point estimation provide an inexpensive, accessible alternative for low vision and blind K-12 students using number lines and coordinate graphs. In the first phase of this research program, a series of four psychophysics studies demonstrated an interactive auditory number line that enables blind, low vision, and sighted people to find small targets with a laptop, headphones, and a mouse or a keyboard. The Fitts' Law studies showed that, given appropriate auditory feedback, blind people can use a mouse. In addition, auditory feedback can generate target response patterns similar to when people use visual feedback. Phase two introduced SQUARE, a novel method for building accessible alternatives to existing education technologies. The standards-driven and teacher-directed approach generated 17 graphing standards for sixth grade mathematics, all of which emphasized point estimation. It also showed that how only few basic behavioral components are necessary for these graphing problems. The third phase evaluated active point estimation tools in terms of training, classroom situations, and a testing situation. This work shows that students can learn to graph in K-12 environments, regardless of their visual impairment. It also provides several technologies used for graphing, and methods to further develop education accessibility research.

The aim of this study is to investigate how the connection between fractions, decimals and percent are taught in grade 4-6 with more focuson the fractions. The empirical data was obtained by qualitative methods comprising interviews with four mathematic elementary school teachers, in addition to two observations with two classrooms in grade 6. The data presented is from one school. The theoretical framework is based on Liping Ma profound understanding of fundamental mathematics and theories of subject didactic concepts of Kilborn, Löwing, Karlsson & Kilborn and MacIntosh. The results of the interviews and observations show that the connection between fractions, decimals and percent is being taught without illuminating how the mentioned are connected. The aspect of fractions, which has been taught to show the relation between fractions and decimals, was division as metaphor. While there was no aspect of fractions has been taught to show the relation between it and percent except that a percent is a hundredth. Such as 40% is equal with 40/100. In addition, fractions has been taught by using visual aids, but never taught by using number line. In conclusion the connection between fractions, decimals and percent has not been related clearly with basic concept fractions.

Children’s early mathematics learning and development have become a topic of increasing interest over the past decade since early mathematical knowledge and skills have been shown to be a strong predictor of later mathematics performance. Understanding how children develop mathematical knowledge and skills and how they can be supported in their early learning could thus prove to be a vital component in promoting learning of more formal mathematics. In light of the above, with this thesis I sought to contribute to an increased understanding of children’s early mathematics learning and development by examining effects of playing different number games on children’s number knowledge and skills, and by investigating children’s representations of numbers on number line tasks. Two number game intervention studies were performed, and effects of three different number game conditions (linear number, circular number and nonlinear number) were investigated by examining 5- and 6-year-old children’s pre- and posttest performance on different numerical tasks. The findings indicate that playing number games in general support children’s development of number knowledge and skills, where the specific learning outcomes are affected differently depending on the type of number game utilized. To elucidate children’s representations of numbers, their performance on two different  umber line tasks have been analyzed using a latent class modeling approach. The results reveal that there is a heterogeneity in 5- and 6-year-old children’s number line estimations and subgroups of children showing different estimation patterns were distinguished. In addition, it is shown that children’s number line estimations can be associated to their number knowledge as well as to task specific aspects. The findings presented in this thesis contribute to the discussion of the value of selecting game activities in a conscious way to support children’s early mathematics learning and development. They also add to the discussion regarding the number line task and how children’s number line estimations can be analyzed and interpreted.