The purpose of this study is to examine peer cultures in relation to everyday routines at institutions for younger children in two different cultures. This study is a comparative study of institutions for younger children in England and in Sweden. This study has an ethnographic approach, and the methods that have been employed to gather empirical data are observation and informal interviews. The theoretical basis for the analysis of this study is childhood sociology, which includes interpretive reproduction and access strategies/ withdrawal strategies. Foucault's disciplinary power theory has also been used to analyze. The result of this study shows that when children interact with each other in peer cultures they use similar access strategies and withdrawal strategies to create, protect and maintain peer cultures - even though they belong to different cultures and institutions. However, the interpretive reproduction in peer cultures vary since the children live in different cultures and have different norms and structures. This study also shows that within both institutions there are governance over the children in how, where, when and what they can do. It was made clear that the everyday routines of the institutions provide either possibilities or obstacles for the children to interact in pursuit of creating peer cultures.

The study intends to examine how children identifies affordance at the preschool’s yard, and how they interpret this environment so they can adapt this to their peer cultures. The aim of this study is to gain an understanding of how children create place and culture by playing in an outdoor environment at the preschool.The study is conducted over a two-week period and shows observations where the children are staying at the yard and what they are doing at these locations. These observations were written down in a notepad; where each child was staying, what they did, how they moved and what they said. The collected material was analyzed using Gibson's theory affordance, Corsaro's concept of peer cultures and interpretive reproduction, as well as Halldén's concept of place. The concepts were used to understand and answer the two questions:” What places seem to be important for children's play?” and” Which affordance do children identify in these places?”The result showed that children negotiates about the places that are on the preschool's yard and then create their own places. Their own places that they create offers them fellowship, where they can try different roles, values and norms. Children transform materials and space to adapt to their children's culture, and they create physical as well as symbolic rooms in the yard. Children see opportunities in environments and materials, instead of restrictions. The result showed that the children imitated the adult culture, where the children then produced their own interpretations to adapt to their children´s culture.

The purpose of our study is to investigate children's perceptions of gender stereotypical norms in the preschool environment. The focus will be on children's statements about gender norms. Our aim is also to study whether hierarchies arise in free play and what these can be interpreted as being based on. Through our study, we want to contribute to putting gender back on the agenda, this time from the children's perspective. Our research questions concern what factors contribute to hierarchical arrangements in free play and whether children perceive and express stereotypical gender norms in the activities. We have used qualitative focus group interviews with children aged three to six years. As a basis for the interviews, we have read the fictional children's book Dom som bestämmer - Lisen Adbåge (2018) together with the children. We have also conducted observations with the same children, focusing on children's hierarchical orders, gender making and access strategies in free play. We have analyzed our collected material with the help of Corsaro's theory of peer cultures and Hirdman's gender theory. The overall results that emerged are that children use a wide variety of strategies to get into peer-play and gain influence over the content of the play. Furthermore, it appears that the children in the study see age as the most important marker of power and how they continue to express gender stereotypical norms in their everyday lives. / Syftet med vår studie är dels att undersöka barns uppfattningar av könsstereotypa normer i förskolemiljö. Här kommer fokus ligga på barnens utsagor kring könsnormer. Vårt syfte är också att studera om det inom den fria leken uppstår hierarkier och vad dessa kan tolkas vila på. Vi vill genom vår studie bidra till att sätta genus på agendan igen med utgångspunkt i barnens perspektiv. Våra forskningsfrågor rör sig kring vilka faktorer som bidrar till hierarkiska ordningar i den fria leken samt om barn uppfattar och ger uttryck för stereotypa könsnormer i verksamheten. Vi har använt oss av kvalitativa fokusgruppsintervjuer med barn i åldrarna tre till sex år. Som underlag till intervjuerna har vi tillsammans med barnen läst den skönlitterära barnboken Dom som bestämmer - Lisen Adbåge (2018). Vi har även genomfört observationer med samma barn med fokus på barns hierarkiska ordningar, görande av kön och tillträdesstrategier i den fria leken. Vi har analyserat vårt insamlade material med hjälp av Corsaros teori om kamratkulturer samt Hirdmans genusteori. De övergripande resultaten som framkommit är att barn använder sig av en stor variation av strategier för att ta sig in i lekar och skaffa sig inflytande över lekens innehåll. Vidare framgår att barnen i studien ser ålder som den viktigaste markören för makt samt hur de fortsatt ger uttryck för könsstereotypa normer i sin vardag.

<p><strong>Abstract</strong></p><p>In this essay, I have performed a study on peer cultures and how these peer cultures are expressed in a group of pre-school children. My questions are as following:</p><ul><li>What positions/power positions can be seen in children’s play, and how will these be expressed?</li><li>How do the children gain access to play?</li><li>How do children act when they want to exclude other children?</li></ul><p>In order to understand this I have chosen to do observations as a method. In order to investigate these questions I chose to spend six whole mornings with a group of pre-school children, closely observing their behavior. The focus was on children, three years of age or older. The results show that children are very resourceful, when it comes to making up strategies for either giving access to, or excluding, other children from their play. For example they could make up a rule which would make it impossible for another child to be a part of the game. One rule could be that you in order to be able to play with the others must possessed a particular toy that the children used in the game, which the new child did not own. But there are also many strategies for children to be a part of a game. For example, if they had a toy that the other children wanted as well, this could be a way of joining in on the play.</p><p>We as adults must be aware of that these cultures exist everywhere. Sometimes we are not even aware of that a child is not being allowed to play with the others. It is not fun for those children who always have to stand beside the play. We need to try and discover who these children are and help them to be a part of the group.</p><p>Keywords: Pre-school Peer culture, Access play, Excluding play</p> / <p><strong>Sammanfattning</strong></p><p>I mitt examensarbete har jag genomfört en undersökning, med syfte att bidra med kunskaper om kamratkulturer och hur dessa kulturer uttrycks i en förskolegrupp. Mina frågeställningar är följande:</p><ul><li>Vilka positioner/maktpositioner finns i barns lek och hur synliggörs de?</li><li>Hur får barn tillträde till leken? </li><li>Hur gör barnen när de utesluter andra barn?</li></ul><p>Frågeställningarna har jag valt att undersöka, genom att observera barnen i en barngrupp under sex förmiddagar. Fokus har varit på barn som är tre år och äldre.  Resultatet visar att barnen är väldigt påhittiga vad gäller olika strategier, både för att ge tillträde till eller att utesluta andra barn från att vara med i leken. Bland annat kunde de hitta på regler, som gjorde att det nya barnet inte kunde vara med. En regel kunde vara att man var tvungen att ha någon leksak som barnen använde, som det nya barnet inte hade. Men det finns också många strategier för att få vara med i leken. Till exempel om de hade en leksak, som de andra barnen också ville ha kunde detta vara ett sätt för att få vara med i leken.</p><p>Vi vuxna måste vara medvetna om att kamratkulturer existerar. Ibland är vi inte ens medvetna om att det finns något barn som inte får vara med och leka. Det är inte roligt för de barnen som alltid blir uteslutna. Vi måste försöka upptäcka dessa barn och hjälpa dem att bli en del av gruppen.</p><p>Nyckelord: Förskola, Kamratkultur, Tillträde lek, Uteslutning lek</p>

Abstract In this essay, I have performed a study on peer cultures and how these peer cultures are expressed in a group of pre-school children. My questions are as following: What positions/power positions can be seen in children’s play, and how will these be expressed? How do the children gain access to play? How do children act when they want to exclude other children? In order to understand this I have chosen to do observations as a method. In order to investigate these questions I chose to spend six whole mornings with a group of pre-school children, closely observing their behavior. The focus was on children, three years of age or older. The results show that children are very resourceful, when it comes to making up strategies for either giving access to, or excluding, other children from their play. For example they could make up a rule which would make it impossible for another child to be a part of the game. One rule could be that you in order to be able to play with the others must possessed a particular toy that the children used in the game, which the new child did not own. But there are also many strategies for children to be a part of a game. For example, if they had a toy that the other children wanted as well, this could be a way of joining in on the play. We as adults must be aware of that these cultures exist everywhere. Sometimes we are not even aware of that a child is not being allowed to play with the others. It is not fun for those children who always have to stand beside the play. We need to try and discover who these children are and help them to be a part of the group. Keywords: Pre-school Peer culture, Access play, Excluding play / Sammanfattning I mitt examensarbete har jag genomfört en undersökning, med syfte att bidra med kunskaper om kamratkulturer och hur dessa kulturer uttrycks i en förskolegrupp. Mina frågeställningar är följande: Vilka positioner/maktpositioner finns i barns lek och hur synliggörs de? Hur får barn tillträde till leken? Hur gör barnen när de utesluter andra barn? Frågeställningarna har jag valt att undersöka, genom att observera barnen i en barngrupp under sex förmiddagar. Fokus har varit på barn som är tre år och äldre.  Resultatet visar att barnen är väldigt påhittiga vad gäller olika strategier, både för att ge tillträde till eller att utesluta andra barn från att vara med i leken. Bland annat kunde de hitta på regler, som gjorde att det nya barnet inte kunde vara med. En regel kunde vara att man var tvungen att ha någon leksak som barnen använde, som det nya barnet inte hade. Men det finns också många strategier för att få vara med i leken. Till exempel om de hade en leksak, som de andra barnen också ville ha kunde detta vara ett sätt för att få vara med i leken. Vi vuxna måste vara medvetna om att kamratkulturer existerar. Ibland är vi inte ens medvetna om att det finns något barn som inte får vara med och leka. Det är inte roligt för de barnen som alltid blir uteslutna. Vi måste försöka upptäcka dessa barn och hjälpa dem att bli en del av gruppen. Nyckelord: Förskola, Kamratkultur, Tillträde lek, Uteslutning lek

Jag har i denna vetenskapliga essä försökt diversifiera, det allmängiltiga uttrycket “alla ska vara med”. Min gestaltning, som inleder denna essä, beskriver situationer där barn ställs utanför leken. Ibland försöker vi pedagoger, i demokratisk anda och välvilja, förändra leken och inkludera dem som barnen exkluderat. Det finns en ständig kamp om makten, från oss vuxna men även mellan barnen. De frågeställningar jag vill svara på är: Vad avgör om barn inkluderas i leken? Hur diskuteras barns kamratkulturer? Hur kan mitt uppdrag som lärare i fritidshem formuleras utifrån ett relationellt perspektiv? Mitt syfte med denna vetenskapliga essä är att lyfta fram att det ofta saknas en levande diskussion kring barnens relationella arbete samt deras tillträdesstrategier trots att dessa ständigt leder till komplexa situationer. Vuxna och barn har ofta olika blick för det som faktiskt sker i dessa sammansatta mellanmänskliga möten. Ett hermeneutiskt synsätt genomsyrar diskussionen såväl som ett relationellt perspektiv. Jag söker tolka gestaltningen genom följande perspektiv: kamratkulturer, inträdesstrategier, hierarkier, inkludering samt exkludering. Jag söker en förståelse för de mellanmänskliga möten som framträder i gestaltningen, mellan individ och omgivningen i fritidshemmet. Jag har breddat min förståelse genom att diskutera forskning samt genom essäformens processkrivande där jag i en pendlande rörelse skriver fram mina fördjupade reflektioner. Min slutsats blir att dessa mänskliga dilemman är komplicerade. Det är tydligt att tolkningsutrymmet är situerat och varierar beroende på vem som äger blicken. Det krävs att vi pedagoger är engagerade och stöttar barnen genom vår närvaro i leken. Samtidigt kräver detta en varsamhet och aktiv reflektion över det faktum att vi vuxna, ofta snabbt och oreflekterat, utifrån en högre hierarkisk position tar oss tolkningsföreträde och dömer barn i dessa mellanmänskliga sociala sammanhang. / In this essay, I discuss the expression "everyone should be included". Portrayed experiences starts this essay and describes situations where children are excluded from the play. Sometimes we as pedagogues, in democratic spirit and goodwill, try to change the play and include the excluded. There is a constant struggle for agency partly from us as adults but also between the children. Research illustrates that children need support in their relationship work. The question is whether they get the support they need when it also appears that there is no professional language for talking about children's relational work. My questions are: What determines if children are included in the play? How is children's participation in peer cultures discussed? I will also reflect on my role as a teacher at the after-school center and how it can be formulated from a relational perspective. My purpose is to highlight the discussion about the children's relationship work and their access strategies because they often lead to complex situations. I have a hermeneutical approach in which I discuss previous research in relation to my portrayed experiences, and by the following perspectives: participation in peer cultures, access strategies, status hierarchies, inclusion and exclusion in play. My conclusion is that these interpersonal dilemmas are complicated. It is clear that the interpretation varies depending on individual and contextual factors. It is necessary that we as pedagogues are committed and support the children through our presence in the play. At the same time, this requires a caution and active reflection on the fact that we as adults from a higher hierarchical position interpret and judge children in these interpersonal social contexts.

The preschool is often looked upon as an institution for the parents and guardians, with an aim to influence the children. If we change the perspective, from the adult to the child´s perspective, we might find that the preschool with its places and activities is created by the children who live their everyday lives there. Through an ethnographic study, consisting of observations, I examined how the children in a preschool, ages three to five, enter a specific place in a certain time during the preschool day – a so-called time space. This time space is an occasion for waiting on each other and waiting for a new activity to start - a small crack in the preschool structure. In what way can children´s agency be expressed in this small time space? To find the answer to my question I observed the social interactions of the children, with a perspective of childhood sociology and Corsaro´s (2014) theories of peer cultures, interpretive reproduction, and sharing and controlling as a starting point and as a tool for my analysis. The results show that children constantly seek to gain control of their lives through different strategies of getting themselves in and out of interaction and activities. They create their own space within the time space and during this study they clearly influence the meaning of the time space by re-creating and creating new routines and meaning. Through their peer cultures, the constant control seeking, and by just being in the room, the children can be seen as active agents by their interpretation and reproduction of the meaning of the time space. My conclusion is that children take whatever space they´re given in the preschool structure and make it their own. In this way they are active agents of the preschool.

This study aims to explore children’s perspectives on conflict resolution within their peer groups. Children’s peer groups and cultures are a crucial setting for social and emotional development and can be reflective of broader peer cultures. This is an area of great importance within child studies and has been influenced by Corsaro’s ideas around children’s social worlds (Corsaro, 2009:321). More specifically, this study is built around the following research questions: 1) What do children perceive as positive ways to solve a conflict? 2) What do children perceive as negative ways to solve a conflict? 3) How do children perceive the role of adults in conflict resolution? Previous literature provides an insight into this topic that comes often through the adult lens (Jones, 2020: 479). This study aimed to include direct child participation in research, allowing agency and voice in the research made about them (Corsaro, 2009:321). To address the research questions, a qualitative study with twelve children in their second year of school, around the ages of seven and eight, was conducted. The children were given an opportunity to talk about their perspectives and viewpoints by engaging in discussions, by using arts-based methods and creating visual materials in the forms of mind-maps and lists as are common within Participation Visual Methods (PVM) research.The written data that was derived from the creative methods was analysed using thematic analysis, with the direct observations and visual drawings used to support our interpretations. The main themes that arose from this study can be explained using verbal, non-verbal and ambiguous strategies for resolving conflicts. Further subthemes such as displaying pro-social behaviours, apologising, compromising, and hostile expressions were identified through our data analysis. This study contributes to sociocultural research in child studies. This study grants insight into child-centred research about navigating conflicts as fundamental components of human relations.

I denna kvalitativa studie var syftet dels att undersöka om förskollärare upplever att barn med språkligsårbarhet blir uteslutna ur leken och dels att undersöka vilka tillträdesstrategier barn med språkligsårbarhet använder sig av för att få tillträde till leken. Jag genomförde intervjuer med två förskollärarepå en förskola.Resultatet visar att de inte upplever att språksårbara barn med svenska som modersmål blir uteslutna urden fria leken. De upplever däremot att barn med annat förstaspråk än svenska blir uteslutna i störreutsträckning. De upplever även att dessa barn inte heller söker sig till fri lek i samma utsträckning sombarnen med svenska som modersmål. Resultatet visar även att barn oavsett språklig förmåga användersig av liknande icke-verbala strategier när de söker tillträde till leken. Variationen beror på barnens olikapersonligheter och beroende på sin personlighet väljer man olika sätt att söka tillträde i leken. Barnenanvänder sig av kroppsspråket i form av blickar, kroppskontakt och även TAKK förekommer i vissasituationer när de söker tillträde till lek. Språkstarka barn använder sig av kroppsspråket när de sökertillträde samtidigt som de förlitar sig på sitt verbala språk. / This qualitative study examines preschool teachers’ experience concerning if children with languageimpairment suffer from exclusion from play with other children. The study also examines theirexperience about what kind of access rituals children with language impairment use to gain access inother children’s free play. Interviews were conducted with two preschool teachers.The result shows that according to preschool teachers’ experience, exclusion can depend on the child’snative language. They notice more exclusion among the children with other native language thanSwedish. They also experience that these children don’t search access to play in the same extent aschildren with Swedish as mother tongue. The result shows that children, no matter speech competence,use the same kind of non-verbal access rituals when they search access to play. The variation of ritualsdepends on the child’s personality, not on language competence. Children use their body language inthe shape of eye contact, body contact and also sign language is used in some situations. Children withdeveloped language use the body language when they want access but they also rely on their speechwhen they search for access.

This video ethnographies study examines the everyday interaction of two groups of children (aged between 10 and 13) as they use digital media in their spare time. One group of boys has been studied in their recreation centre and one group of girls has been studied at home and at the stable. The participants have different social and cultural affiliations. The purpose of the study is to examine how the children in the different groups organize their peer cultures as they participate with other children in different kinds of digital literacy events. Furthermore, the study aims at examining what kind of competencies the children display when they participate in these digital literacy events. Theoretically, and in the analysis of the material, the study is based on New literacy studies, in which literacy is approached as a social, cultural and situated practice. The empirical material consists of ethnographical fieldwork combined with video recordings of everyday digital literacy events of the children, as well as informal conversations and screen-shots of the online interaction of the children. The children’s participation in digital literacy events are analysed with a CA-inspired interaction analysis. The analysis focus on how the children organise their participation in the midst of face-to-face interaction and how they use writing, symbol and image based communication on the internet. In the analysis the children’s use of non-verbal resources and the body have also been taken into consideration. The study shows that the children in the two groups develop different forms of technical and social literacy competencies that draws on their experiences, hobbies and participation in local practices. Through their participation the children strengthen relationships and organize their peer cultures. Their digital literacy events also involve navigating on the internet, communication with friends via internet as well as critically evaluating information on the internet in interaction with their peers.