從實務面來看，總額支付制度（global budget）的施行絕非僅止於管制成本的手段，還必須觀照該管理的制度設計。畢竟制度不但能夠彙集各種資源，同時也成為資源使用的指標，影響行動者間的策略選項。另外，針對政策實施後的監控與評估檢討，也是修正制度與提升品質的反饋歷程。然而，學界與實務界在總額支付制度設計原則的研究卻十分有限，究其原因，重要的是主要集中於制度在實際的應用與效果，缺乏以一套適用的「方法」（methodology）來審視。誠如Elinor Ostrom所言，「政策分析家的工具箱有各式各樣的工具，但還缺乏一種具體明確的集體行動理論。」，共有資源管理的例子到處都有，但是分析家卻沒有很好的在理論上總結他們。他藉由制度分析與經驗實例，衍生出來的「制度設計原則」（Design principles），研究各種共有資源管理的問題：從不同類型的資源系統如灌溉系統、捕魚等自然資源或網路資源、財政預算等、到公共財制度研究等，都已經獲得豐碩的成果。本文的主要目標，就是在既有的理論基礎上，討論應用制度設計原則來進行「總額預算評估」的可能內容，並提出政策建議與後續研究的可能內容提出建議。 本文主要分為：（一）導論（二）文獻回顧與理論基礎（三）研究設計（四）中醫總額支付制度的演變（伍）中醫總額的自主管理（六）結論。希冀對學界或實務界在健保改革評估未來的發展，能有所啟發與助益。 / From the practice, global budget is not just the means to control cost, must also take the design of management into consideration. The institution not only can gather various kinds of resources, but also become the indexes, and influence the tactics among the persons who take action to select. Since a global budget married to fee-for-service payments directly analogous to a common-pool resources, we use a framework of design principles to explore the difference of outcomes of management, and to discuss the policy implications about institutional design and financial Incentives. Sincere as what Elinor Ostrom said, ' the policy analyst's box has many kinds of tools , but still lack a kind of concrete and clear collective action theory. ', example there are resource management in common everywhere, but it is the getting better to summarize they in theory. In addition, the “self-governing institutions” designed by each local medical association must be flexibly adapted to the context in which it is applied. To foster the cooperation among physicians, the medical associations of local level should also play the role to provide the institutional setting for collective participatory decision making. The medical associations of national level ought to change the financial incentives facing the physicians to induce the rational patterns of medical behavior so that the allocate efficiency of medical resource and effectiveness of global- budget management can be improved.

在知識經濟時代，智慧財產權在企業發展與競爭力提升上具有相當影響力，其重要性已不言可喻。近年來越來越多的關注焦點落在技術標準的發展上，蓋技術標準是技術成果的規範化、規則化，對企業而言，唯有引領標準，掌握制定規則的權力，才能形成真正的競爭優勢，否則就可能永遠受制於人。而對產業整體而言，技術標準對經濟及科技之發展有相當貢獻，蓋一旦標準形成，產品與零組件間相容性問題就可被解決，製造商之生產成本也可降低。一般認為技術標準的形成是大勢所趨且有利多於弊的效果，然在技術標準的制定與後續相關專利的實施過程，卻可能衍生出許多與反托拉斯法相關之爭議。美國司法部與聯邦交易委員會曾在1995年共同發表「智慧財產授權之反托拉斯準則」，表達對智慧財產權授權行為可能引發競爭法問題之看法，在相隔十二年後，於2007年4月間，又共同發表了「反托拉斯法執行與智慧財產權報告」，當中對技術標準與專利聯盟所牽涉的競爭法議題做了深入探討。 技術標準制定過程中引貣競爭法上疑義的行為態樣有專利劫持及抵制技術標準制定之情形。美國聯邦交易委員會已於2006年8月Rambus一案中，確立專利劫持行為違反聯邦交易委員會法第五條與休曼法第二條規定，聯邦上訴巡迴法院也於2007年6月Qualcomm v. Broadcom一案中，表示專利權人違反FRAND授權原則將形同從事專利劫持之效果，構成休曼法第二條規定之違反。至於抵制技術標準制定情形，法院已於2006年2月在Golden Bridge Technology v. Nokia一案中表示確有違反休曼法第一條規定之見解。 目前各技術標準組織紛紛藉由:1.制定揭露政策，亦即要求成員揭露與欲採定為標準之技術相關之專利權，或2.訂定FRAND政策，要求成員同意未來將在符合公平、合理且無歧視原則下進行授權等方式，以避免專利劫持情形發生。惟由 於技術標準組織除在了解相關技術是否存在專利權之外，需進一步知悉未來專利授權條件，以做為是否將特定專利技術採為技術標準之參考，再加上FRAND字義上不易做成精確解釋，易生文義操弄之空間，仍無法解決專利劫持之問題，因此近期部分技術標準組織漸發展出事先授權條件揭露之政策，例如VITA及IEEE組織，要求欲參與技術標準制定之成員，必須事先揭露將來擬授權金額之上限或授權條件的最嚴苛限度。此外也有論者提出事先多方進行授權條件協商之可行性。 關於事先單方揭露授權條件政策之適法性，美國反托拉斯主管機關已表明不予質疑之立場，並肯定事先單方揭露授權條件有促進技術標準制定效率之優點。至於在事先多方協商授權條件政策方面，反托拉斯主管機關雖強調其對於技術標準組織是否應進行事先協商授權條件並未設立立場，但基本上仍肯定事先授權條件協商具減少專利劫持並達到促進競爭效果之優點，故傾向適用合理原則作為判斷是否違反反托拉斯法規定的依據。惟若專利權人以事先協商授權條件作為掩護，實際上共同約定以標準技術製造生產之下游產品的銷售價格(naked price fixing)，此時仍難逃被認定構成當然違法行為。 在藉由專利聯盟實施技術標準之過程，亦可能有構成競爭法上聯合行為與獨占行為之情形發生。相關引發違法疑慮之行為態樣包括:專利聯盟中包含替代性專利、競爭性敏感資訊之流通、排除他人加入專利聯盟、專屬授權、回饋授權、權利金約定、拒絕部分授權等。惟應注意的是，美國法院及反托拉斯主管機關認為，有鑑於專利聯盟具促進授權活動進行效率之特性，有助於技術提升及產業發展，因此傾向以合理原則判斷專利聯盟限制條款約定之合法性，而不當然認為此等行為態樣違反反托拉斯法相關規定。 在台灣喧騰一時的飛利浦光碟案主要亦是涉及技術標準實施過程產生是否違反公平交易法之疑義，九十六年四月間最高行政法院作出最終判決，纏訟已久的紛爭於是落幕。對於本案衍生問題思考，首先，本文認為公平會或許應審慎思考是否進一步制定有關技術標準與專利聯盟之特別處理準則。公平會似可參酌美國等先進國家之例，詳細規範技術標準的制定與發展，及專利聯盟的形成、對參與者的限制、關鍵性專利的決定、授權管理、授權條件的審查等各項問題。其次，在技術市場的界定與聯合行為的認定上，應回歸專利技術內容與專利技術間的關係加以分析；存在互補關係之技術，彼此間沒有制衡或牽制力量，不應被劃定在同一技術市場，也就不會成立聯合行為。而在獨占地位的認定上，應認為只要擁有製造某一產品之部分關鍵性專利技術，足以專利法所賦予之權利牽制他人對該產品之製造、銷售等行為，而該產品在相關產品市場可被認為具獨占地位，即應可認定專利技術擁有者之獨占地位成立。最後，在獨占地位濫用之救濟措施方面，公平會應依公平法第41條規定，妥善運用法律所賦予之裁量權限，縝密思索對於該當具體事案最為合理、適當的救濟措施，給予當事人最直接有效的救濟，而非僅消極地命令其不得繼續從事違法行為或處以罰鍰，對於事態之解決，並無法有效發揮回復市場競爭應有狀態之公平法規範目的。美國聯邦交易委員會於Rambus案及其他相關案例中極富創意地提出消極、積極的更正措施交錯運用模式，當可作為我國公平會未來對類似案件處理之參考。 為了成功地制定技術標準以引領產業發展，本文認為，有志於參與技術標準活動業者，在這個主要由歐美大廠主導技術標準制定的產業環境中，應注意歐美等國法規範內容與法院、相關主管機關之實務見解，才能知悉特定行為之法律風險以避免誤觸法網，並適當主張自己的權利。其次，可善用技術標準組織政策訂定方式解決專利劫持問題。再者，在技術標準制定之高度角力競爭下，必須培育跨領域人才參與技術授權談判才能增加脫穎而出之機會。而若欲藉由成立專利聯盟方式進行專利交互授權或對外授權，專利聯盟的組成與授權進行至少應符合本 文第七章所歸納的幾個基本要件，始不易產生違反競爭法之疑慮。至於在被控專利侵權業者方面，在面對專利侵權訴訟而進行訴訟攻防時，可朝專利權人參與技術標準或專利聯盟活動的行為是否違反反托拉斯法規定之方向加以思考，以冀增加勝訴之機會。 / In this era of knowledge-economy, intellectual property plays an important role in business developments. The significance of standard setting is thus much emphasized in recent years. It is generally recognized that standard setting brings many benefits to industries, such as costdown of manufacturing process and improvement of product compatibility, and patent pools can help to decrease transaction costs of licensing negotiations and to mitigate royalty stacking problems. However, disputes regarding the violation of antitrust law can be caused in the process of setting standards and the formation and the operation of patent pools. The U.S. DOJ and the U.S. FTC has discussed about antitrust issues related to standard setting and patent pools in “Antitrust Guidelines for the Licensing of Intellectual Property” in April 1995 and “Antitrust Enforcement And Intellectual Property Right：Promoting Innovation and Competition” in April 2007. Patent holdup and group boycott are controversial in standard setting. In August 2006, the U.S. FTC ruled in In re Rambus that patent holdup would violate section 2 of the Sherman Act and section 5 of the FTC Act. In June 2007, the Federal Circuit also ruled in Qualcomm v. Broadcom that patent owner who has broken one’s previous commitment on FRAND licensing would violate section 2 of the Sherman Act. As to group boycott, the court opinioned in Golden Bridge Technology v. Nokia that group boycott in the process of setting standard could be per se illegal under section 1 of the Sherman Act. Many standard setting organizations (SSOs) have tried to avoid patent holdup by making patent disclosure and FRAND licensing policies. Recently some SSOs have implemented policies of ex ante unilateral announcement of licensing terms by patent holders or ex ante multilateral licensing negotiation between patent holders and SSO members to deal with patent holdup problems. These ex ante approaches facilitate competition between patent holders on licensing terms and allow SSOs to gain more information on patents. In light of the competitive effects these ex ante approaches generate, FTC and DOJ declared that they will review related policies and conduct under the rule of reason. But any efforts to reduce competition by using ex ante disclosure or negotiation process as a cover to fix downstream prices of products would be reviewed a per se violation of section 1 of the Sherman Act. The standard patent licensing by patent pools could also give rise to cautions of violating antitrust law. Certain behavior in patent pools can be deemed controversial, such as including substitute patents, exchanges of competitively sensitive information, exclusive membership, exclusive license, grantback license, package license, and so on. The DOJ and the FTC expressed that they will examine similar behavior in patent pools under the rule of reason, since patent pools provide a more efficient way for patent licensing, which help to improve technology qualities and industry developments. The case, Philips v. Fair Trade Commission, R.O.C., also involved some disputes of violating Fair Trade Act. From the case, the thesis claims that first, there is a need for FTC to enact a guideline regarding standard setting and patent pools for the industries to follow. Second, while defining technology markets and concerted actions, one should analyze the relationship between patents. Complementary patents belong to different technology markets, so it would be impossible for complementary patent owners to collude with each other. Third, to identify monopolization, the thesis asserts that the patent owner of technology essential for certain product will acquire monopoly positions in certain product market, and thus will be deemed as monopolists in the related technology market. Last but not the least, the thesis proposes that the FTC should not only passively prohibit the abuse of monopoly position and issue punishments, but also come up with some proper solutions, such as compulsory license, to actively maintain fair competition in the market. Some measures delineated by the U.S. FTC in In re Rambus can be referred for future cases in Taiwan. To successfully participate in standard setting and patent pool activities, the thesis proposes certain suggestions. First, because most SSOs are led by U.S. and European enterprises and most SSOs are subject to U.S. and European legal jurisdiction, it is important to follow up to U.S. and European law and legal developments to avoid legal risks. Second, properly structuring SSO patent policies might enable SSOs to mitigate patent holdup problems. Third, the cultivation of inter-disciplinary professionals of technology, law, finance, and business management can be significant for industries in the standard setting competition. The thesis as well indicates several principles that might help to avoid the risks of violation of antitrust law during the formation and operation of patent pools. On the other hand, those who are accused of patent infringement might gain a better chance to win the lawsuit, if the violations of antitrust of patent owners in standard setting and patent pools are taken into consideration.

過去政府的保育政策多施行於國有地上，盡量避免限制私有土地上的經濟活動，卻也造成保護區周邊私有土地利用上，與保育目的不相容的情形，致使共享性資源（common pool resources, CPRs）走向悲劇一途。本文以宜蘭雙連埤濕地作為個案，從深度訪談瞭解該地私有地保育的困境，並從「協力治理」（collaborative governance）的角度分析，發現政府單方面的保育政策，難以達到良好的私地保育效果。本研究透過深度訪談追蹤雙連埤的保育努力過程，發現最後能夠維持雙連埤的風貌，荒野協會等民間保育團體功不可沒。保育團體不具備管理的職責，比較容易與在地居民的建立情感聯繫，能作為政府與居民之間的溝通橋樑；他們擁有豐富的生態知識，能化自然資源為物質性誘因（material incentives），結合居民生計與生態保育的行動，減輕私有地上活動對環境的壓力。透過「由下而上」的共享性資源管理模式，雙連埤的案例展現如何透過協力合產與「社基保育」（Community-Based Conservation）模式，破除「生態」與「生計」無法共存的迷思，進而達到永續發展的目的。 / Conservational policies have been known more applicable to public lands. Yet endangered species can not tell and thus have suffered from the economic activities on private land, leading to an inevitable tragedy. This thesis adopts Shuang-Lien Lake as a case to demonstrate the possibility of an alternative, community-based approach. Through in-depth interviews with policy makers and major stakeholders, this research indicates how collaboration between local government and voluntary citizen groups could overcome the oppositions by local residents against conserving valuable ecologic system on private land.

Pourquoi faire un effort pour la communauté sans rien recevoir en retour? C’est habituellement par conviction ou pour répondre à une norme sociale. En s’intéressant au problème du recyclage, nous définissons un modèle de comportement qui intègre ces deux facteurs. Nous déterminons sous quelles conditions un individu décide d’agir bénévolement, puis nous étudions comment ce comportement se propage dans la population. Cela nous permet de déduire comment un gouvernement doit pondérer ses efforts entre la publicité et la consigne pour tendre vers un taux de recyclage parfait au coût minimal. Nous prouvons aussi que dans certaines circonstances, il est préférable de ne pas encourager la participation au bien public. En effet, à mesure que plus de gens y participent, des tensions sociales émergent entre ceux qui font un effort et ceux qui n’en font pas. Celles-ci peuvent être assez fortes pour contrebalancer les bénéfices attendus du bien public / The commons need not be a tragedy: impact of peer-pressure and opinions Why do people help the community without getting anything in return? Usually, they either hold the firm belief they should do so or they want to follow a social norm. The behavioural model of this paper takes those two factors into account and applies them to recycling issues. It shows under which condition people act selflessly and how this behaviour spreads across the population. This paper then determines how governments must balance advertising and packaging refunding in order to increase recycling rate at minimal cost. It also proves that under certain circumstances it is preferable not to start transition toward cooperation. Indeed, as people progressively start cooperating, the population becomes divided between followers and opponents to this new attitude. As long as this heterogeneity remains, peer-pressure causes a cost that may outweigh the expected benefits of cooperation.

The goal of this master thesis is to summarise the theoretical knowledge and subsequently analyse the so-called Assessment Centre, a modern methodology used for recruitment of employees out of a larger pool of applicants. A unified approach to the recruitment process has been developed based on the results of this analysis The analysis includes a detailed insight into the preparation and the course of the Assessment Centre, a competency assessment of the committee members, assessment of the job description, job requirements and selection criteria and an analysis of satisfaction of the applicants themselves. The analysis was conducted on two workplaces of the Insurance Company "XY", with each of them having a different approach towards the assessment centre. Free as well as partially standardised observations were used as a methodological background for the assessment centre analysis. The assessment of satisfaction of the AC participants was conducted with the help of questionnaires.

Les plaquettes sont les cellules principales de l’hémostase. Leur anomalie qualitative et/ou quantitative est à l’origine d’une diathèse hémorragique. Le diagnostic des anomalies plaquettaires nécessite des tests biologiques. L’objectif de notre travail a été d’améliorer leur diagnostic, en particulier, de développer de nouveaux outils d’exploration des granules denses plaquettaires. Les pathologies plaquettaires héréditaires sont mal connues en Chine. Donc la cadre de notre collaboration Nancy /Wuhan nous avons publié un article en Chinois sur les thrombopénies héréditaires. Ensuite, nous avons évalué les performances du test à la mépacrine combiné à l’expression de CD63 par cytométrie en flux (CMF) pour le diagnostic de la pathologie des grains denses plaquettaires. De plus, notre étude montre que la carence de vitamine C pourrait être associée à une thrombopathie des grains denses. Enfin, nous avons développé une approche par CMF, puis par HPLC, pour la détection de sérotonine plaquettaire / Platelets play an essential role in the hemostasis. Abnormalities in platelet number or platelet function may result in excessive bleeding. Diagnosis of platelet disorders requires platelet count and platelet function testing. Our work is aimed to improve the diagnosis of platelet disorders, especially to develop new approaches for testing the function of platelet dense granules. Inherited platelet disorders are hardly recognized in China. Therefore we published an article in Chinese on the topic of hereditary thrombocytopenia in a Chinese clinical journal, within the framework of collaboration between Nancy and Wuhan. In addition, we evaluated the usefulness of flow cytometric mepacrine assay combined with CD63 expression in the diagnosis of dense granule disorder. Moreover, our work demonstrates that vitamin C deficiency might be associated with platelet dense granule disorder. Finally, we developed a method by flow cytometry and then by HPLC for detection of platelet serotonin

Espaces emblématiques des dynamiques complexes entre l’homme et l’écosystème dans des aires protégées abritant des ressources naturelles commune, les îles Galápagos et le Yasuní en Équateur partagent une histoire de dégradation environnementale, conflits socio-environnementaux et chaos territorial. La présence de biens communs, source d’une rente économique liée à la biodiversité et aux hydrocarbures (Yasuní) attire depuis un demi-siècle les intérêts des industriels du pétrole et du tourisme qui ont systématiquement exercé un poids déterminant sur les décisions en matière d’aménagement et de gestion de ces espaces, influant également sur leur gouvernance. Cette réalité joue à l’encontre de politiques d’aménagement territorial pour les deux espaces, Réserves de la Biosphère de l’UNESCO, depuis des décennies. Les Galápagos et le Yasuní témoignent en même temps de la manière dont les gouvernements équatoriens ont eu recours à une « instrumentation » des politiques pour décider le sort des deux aires protégées. Cette thèse montre comment un problème structurel – l’absence d’une politique d’aménagement territorial – a facilité la mobilisation d’instruments de politique pour administrer les deux réserves naturelles. L’histoire du Yasuní est un exemple éloquent de cette pratique d’instrumentation de politiques. La création du parc en 1979, puis les modifications de ses limites et le découpage de la Réserve de la Biosphère Yasuní, dont le parc est le noyau, ont été tous réalisés par des instruments de politiques. De même, aux Galápagos la puissance publique a opéré ses choix en matière d’accès aux espaces protégés et d’utilisation de leurs ressources, en privilégiant les instruments de politique. La loi spéciale des Galápagos (LOREG) a de facto gouverné l’archipel depuis son entrée en vigueur en 1998. Dans les deux cas, l’absence d’une politique d’aménagement territorial a permis l’adoption de décisions top-down sur l’administration des deux espaces.La «révolution citoyenne» du président Correa, en dépit d’une profonde refonte institutionnelle et d’un nouveau paradigme de développement – le Buen Vivir, ou Sumak Kawsay – ne saura changer la manière d’aménager les espaces des deux aires protégées. La planification est élevée à politique d’État qui prime sur toute autre politique, mais dans cette vision l’aménagement du territoire devient un instrument au service de la planification étatique.Ce travail, conduit dans une perspective interdisciplinaire en utilisant une grille de lecture encore peu explorée (les instruments de politique publique) veut aussi contribuer à de nouvelles pistes de réflexion sur l’action publique en matière d’aménagement du territoire ainsi que sur la gouvernance d’aires protégées riches en ressources naturelles communes. / Archetypes of the complex interactions between humans and ecosystems in protected areas rich in Common Pool Resources (CPR), the Galapagos Islands and the Yasuní in Ecuador share a history of environment degradation, socio-environmental conflicts and chaotic land development. The abundance of CPR, source of a lucrative rent from biodiversity and crude (in the Yasuní case) have attracted the interests of oil and tourism businesses over the last fifty years. These industries have consistently steered public decisions over the creation, spatial organisation and administration of these natural reserves, additionally affecting their governance, a reality which has hindered the implementation of land-use planning policies for these areas which are two UNESCO MAB Reserves. The Galapagos and Yasuní protected areas are also a powerful example of the peculiar way whereby Ecuador governments over the last five decades have “instrumented” policy making, preferring the use of policy tools to public policies to decide on the two areas’ fate. This thesis shows how a structural problem such as the absence of a land use planning policy, has thrust the practice of policy tools adoption, instead of policy making, to manage the two protected areas. The “revolución ciudadana” led by president Correa succeeded in re-founding State institutions and launching a new development paradigm (Sumak Kawsay or Buen Vivir) however, it did not advance on land-use management related issues particularly regarding the two areas. Correa has placed national planning at the heart of public policy making it the state policy – backed by a powerful bureaucratic structure – but in this process, land use planning is considered as an instrument in support of national planning. This research, carried out under an interdisciplinary perspective, using policy tools as analytical key, wishes to contribute new insights and methods of analysis on public land use planning and management, as well as governance of common pool resources in protected areas.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:30:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Daniel Orfale Giacomini.pdf: 1286484 bytes, checksum: 4a75dc52f7bd341992dfa3eac2df70f2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-05-28 / This study aims to investigate the refund of credits to consumers that were excluded or discontinued of purchasing pool agreements, seeking to scrutinize it in light of the recent legislation that regulates purchasing pool agreements in Brazil, Law No. 11795/08, as well as the Consumer Protection Code. At first, the study draws the mechanism of purchasing pool agreements in Brazil, broaching its historical evolution and legal development. Once the mechanism of purchasing pool agreements in Brazil is scrutinized, grounds of consumers defense in analyzed, once, as it deals with a consumer relation, purchasing pool agreements are also subject to the rules set forth in the Consumer Protections Code. Another aspect of the study relates to consumer agreements, provided that purchasing pool agreements are emblematic adhesion contracts. It is also necessary to analyze purchasing pool agreements, identifying its parties, ground concepts and main characteristics, emphasizing Brazilian Central Bank s attribution to regulate and supervise such agreements, as well as to determine the ground conditions of purchasing pool agreements, as provided for in respective bills. Once this scenario is drew, the ground is set to present the argumentation concerning refunding of amounts paid by consumers that were excluded or discontinued of purchasing pool agreements. Before the recent legislation, such topic caused disagreement among Court decisions and legal writers, with sound arguments, economical and legal, both to sustain that refund should occur immediately or that the refund should occur upon termination of the purchasing pool, dully updated. The actual rules concerning refund of amounts is then scrutinized, considering that according to Law No. 11795/08 there is no need to wait termination of the purchasing pool in order to refund the amounts due to consumers, as excluded and discontinued consumers take part in the raffle in order to be reimbursed immediately. The study carried on resulted in the conclusion that Law No. 11795/08 adopted the stand that the general interest of all the individuals that take part in the purchasing pool should prevail over the interest of one single consumer. To that extent, the Law No. 11795/08 is in line with rule of reason and the principle of harmony, as it conditioned the refund of amounts to the rule of raffle, which is proper to purchasing pool mechanisms, as it was conceived / O presente estudo traz como objeto de investigação a devolução das quantias pagas pelos consumidores desistentes e excluídos do contrato de consórcio, pretendendo abordá-la e analisá-la à luz da nova legislação que regula o sistema de consórcios no Brasil, a Lei 11.795/08, e do Código de Defesa do Consumidor. Para adentrar o tema, o trabalho traça, primeiramente, um perfil do sistema de consórcios no Brasil, com a evolução de sua história e de sua disciplina jurídica. Com a análise do sistema de consórcios no Brasil, passa-se a discorrer sobre os fundamentos da defesa do consumidor, uma vez que, por se tratar de relação de consumo, o contrato de consórcio se submete às disposições do Código de Defesa do Consumidor. Outra abordagem alude aos contratos de consumo, sendo o contrato de consórcio um típico contrato de adesão. Faz-se necessário, também, a análise do contrato de consórcio, com a identificação de suas partes, conceitos fundamentais e características principais, com destaque para o poder regulatório e fiscalizador do Banco Central do Brasil e a fixação das condições mínimas do contrato de consórcio constante de suas circulares. Com esse pano de fundo, o estudo encontra subsídios para discorrer sobre a questão da devolução das quantias pagas pelos consorciados desistentes e excluídos e que, até a novel legislação, encontrava divisão na doutrina e na jurisprudência, com relevantes argumentos econômicos e de direito pelos que entendem que a mesma deveria ocorrer de maneira imediata, assim como por aqueles que entendem que a devolução dessas quantias deveria ocorrer somente após o término do grupo, devidamente corrigidas. Passa-se, então, a análise da forma com a questão da devolução das quantias pagas aos consorciados desistentes e excluídos foi tratada pela atual legislação, onde não há mais necessidade de se aguardar o encerramento do grupo, passando estes consumidores a participarem do sorteio para receberem de volta os valores pagos. O resultado da pesquisa aponta no sentido de que a Lei nº. 11.795/08, categorizando o funcionamento da sociedade consorcial na prevalência do interesse do grupo de consórcio sobre o interesse individual do consorciado, agiu com espírito de razoabilidade e harmonia ao definir a nova sistemática de devolução das quantias pagas aos consumidores desistentes e excluídos, submetendo sua ocorrência à contemplação em sorteio, como é próprio do sistema de consórcio, desde a sua concepção

La projection hybride combinant la projection plasma et la refusion laser est une solution alternative permettant de diminuer ou même d'éliminer la présence de pores et de fissures au sein d'un dépôt brut de projection. Lors d'un procédé de projection plasma ou de refusion laser, le système substrat/dépôt subissant l'élévation de température,la fusion, la solidification et le refroidissement rapide est ainsi soumis à des gradients de température élevés, un niveau de contraintes élevé, et même un risque de formation de fissures. Il est alors important de pouvoir maîtriserles variations de température et la distribution des contraintes résiduelles au sein même du système. Concernantles travaux effectués dans cette thèse, des modèles thermiques et mécaniques ont été développés à l'aide dulogiciel ANSYS, de sorte à améliorer notre compréhension des comportements thermique et mécanique des revêtements élaborés par projection plasma avec refusion laser.Tout d'abord, la simulation du procédé de projection plasma a été développée afin de prédire les champs transitoires de température, la déformation finale de l'échantillon et les contraintes résiduelles dans des dépôts céramiques (alumine) et métalliques (NiCrBSi). Les contraintes résiduelles résultent de l'équilibre entre contraintes de trempe (toujours en tension) et contraintes thermiques lors du refroidissement final (en compression ou en tension suivant le cas). En raison de la faible limite d'élasticité du dépôt, les contraintes thermiques dominent les contraintes résiduelles dans le cas du dépôt d'alumine. En revanche, les contraintes de trempe dans le dépôt de NiCrBSi sont plus importantes. Par ailleurs, l'augmentation de l'efficacité du système de refroidissement mis en oeuvre permet de diminuer le niveau des contraintes résiduelles dans le dépôt d'alumine. Inversement les contraintes résiduelles au sein du dépôt de NiCrBSi augmentent lorsque le refroidissement en cours de projection est accru. L'analyse thermique permettant de simuler le procédé de refusion laser à posteriori d'un revêtement de NiCrBSi a été effectuée de sorte à évaluer les effets des paramètres du laser sur le champ de température engendré et laforme du bain refondu. Un coefficient d'absorption de 0.5 a été estimé par comparaison de l'épaisseur du bain refondu obtenue par les méthodes numérique et expérimentale. De plus, les morphologies de revêtements refondus ont été caractérisées par méthodes expérimentales. Selon l'analyse mécanique de la refusion laser à posteriori, les contraintes résiduelles sont en tension dans le dépôt refondu, mais en compression vers la zone non-refondue.Concernant le modèle portant sur l'élaboration de couches multiples, permettant de simuler le procédé de refusion laser in-situ, une diminution des contraintes transitoires au sein des couches préalablement élaborées est induite par l'accumulation progressive de chaleur au cours du processus d'élaboration. Après refroidissement final, les contraintes résiduelles suivant la direction de déplacement présentent une amplitude plus importante que suivant les autres directions. De plus, des solutions permettant de diminuer le niveau des contraintes dans le dépôt après refusion ont été recherchées, en faisant notamment varier l'efficacité du système de refroidissement ou le préchauffage du substrat. Il s'avère que l'amplitude des contraintes résiduelles dans le dépôt après refusion est plus sensible à la variation du préchauffage du substrat qu'à la modification de l'efficacité du système de refroidissement. / The hybrid spraying process consisting in plasma spraying and laser remelting is an alternative method to minimize or even eliminate the potential defects within the as-sprayed coatings.During the treatment of plasma spraying or laser remelting, the substrate/coating system undergoing heating, melting, solidification and fast cooling processes is submitted to high temperature gradients, high stress levels and even risks of crack formation. It is therefore important to control the temperature variation and stress level within the substrate/coating system. In this study, thermal and mechanical models established with ANSYS were developed to provide a fundamental understanding of thermal and mechanical behaviors of deposited coatings during plasma spraying and laser remelting processes.3D simulation models were first developed to predict the temperature field, the final deformation of the specimen, and the residual stresses within ceramic (alumina) and metallic (NiCrBSi) coatings. The final residual stresses result from the balance between quenching stresses (tensile) and thermal stresses (compressive or tensile). Due to the low value of the yield stress, the thermal stresses (compressive for that case) dominate the final stress level in the case of the ceramic coating (alumina). On the contrary, the final residual stresses within the NiCrBSi coating are tensile. It is also predicted that an increase of the cooling efficiency induces a lower stress level for the alumina coating, while improving the cooling efficiency slightly increases the residual stresses for the case of the metallic coating (NiCrBSi).Thermal analysis to predict laser post-remelting of a NiCrBSi coating was then carried out to investigate the effects of the laser parameters on the temperature field as well as on the remelted pool shape. An absorption coefficient of 0.5 was estimated by comparison of the remelted pool depths obtained by experimental and numerical methods. In addition, the morphologies of theremelted coating were characterized by experimental methods. According to the mechanical analysis for laser post-remelting of NiCrBSi coatings, the predicted residual stresses were tensile within the remelted coating, whereas those within the non- emelted zone were reversed from tensile before remelting to compressive after laser post-remelting. According to the numerical analysis of in situ laser remelting by a multi-layer model, transient stresses in the former deposited layers were decreased progressively due to the heat accumulation during the following deposition process. For the residual stresses after final cooling, the stress component along the displacement direction presents a higher level in comparison with the transverse andthrough thickness components. Solutions allowing decreasing the stress level within the remelted coating were studied by changing the cooling efficiency and the initial temperature of the substrate. It was noted that the generated residual stress (tensile) was more sensitive to the initial temperature of the substrate, than to the efficiency of the cooling system. In particular, increasing the initial temperature of the substrate could significantly decrease the stress magnitude within the remelted coating, and even reverse the residual stresses within the nonremelted part of the coating to compressive values.

Laboratory tests were undertaken to establish the formative mechanism for steps and pools in steep mountain streams. They indicated that the formation of steps and pools is associated with high intensity, low return interval events and the processes of armouring/paving and antidune formation. Lower than formative discharges give the structures their step-pool appearance, and under such discharges they are extremely stable. Step-pool streams may be modelled by a succession of artificial steps or weirs. Wooden steps were placed in a laboratory channel for this purpose, and clear water flow, clear water scour, and sediment transport tests undertaken for a range of discharges and channel slopes. Three distinct flow regimes were observed for the clear water flow and clear water scour tests. They were stable tumbling flow, unstable tumbling flow, and shooting flow. Sediment transport complicated the regimes from low transport rates. Unstable tumbling flow (clear water flow) at a low slope was shown to be caused by the breaking of standing waves at a theoretical maximum of 0.142. For higher slopes (and including clear water scour tests), unstable tumbling flow was shown to be associated with the physical system geometry preventing the submerged hydraulic jump from developing fully. However, unstable tumbling flow was also caused at lower discharges by sediment waves which were a feature of some test runs with sediment transport. Even so, unstable tumbling flow is likely to occur under field conditions only rarely. With clear water scour, the scour dimensions corresponded to the ultimate static limit. That is, no sediment remains suspended by jet action as occurs for the dynamic limit of scour. For clear water flow and clear water scour, resistance to flow may be predicted by logarithmic equations. Resistance to flow with sediment transport correlated strongly with the average scour hole size. A sudden increase in average (and maximum) velocities indicated that with sediment transport, the erosive ability of a step-pool system may increase sharply as pools become drowned by sediment. For a given discharge, increasing the sediment transport rate beyond this drowning led to net deposition, but no real increase in average velocity. With sediment transport, sediment waves and water waves occurred (independently) despite steady inputs of both water and sediment. This behaviour parallels reports of sediment movement as waves in mountain streams. This tendency toward non-uniformity of water and sediment motion suggests that such behaviour may be explicable in terms of recent advances in nonlinear thermodynamics.