L'Occident se serait sécularisé lorsque l'islam aurait échoué : cette frontière organise les discours de l'Occident séculier. L'islam y apparaît sous la figure d'une impossible sécularisation, comme un processus dont l'échec historique enfanterait une Loi religieuse. Faire l'histoire de cette frontière est l'objet de cette enquête. Le tracé de cette frontière a permis à la sécularisation de s'énoncer comme un mot d'ordre bien avant que ce mot ne désigne le processus d'émergence des sociétés modernes. Le concept de sécularisation est saisi comme l'effet d'une géographie des religions mondiales qui les compare et les hiérarchise. L'histoire de cette frontière commence avec l'Expédition d’Égypte et se formalise à Berlin, au croisement de l'hégélianisme et de l'orientalisme savant. Elle se déploie ensuite à travers le républicanisme français et structure son rapport à l'Afrique en même temps qu'elle infiltre les réformes culturelles qui mèneront à l'Empire allemand. A travers l'histoire de cette frontière et de ses déplacements, c'est un processus d'enchevêtrement permanent des modèles dits de « sécularisation » et de «laïcité» qui apparaît. Sécularisme est le nom de cet enchevêtrement qui semble être indissociable des circulations impériales qui s'effectuent au XIXe siècle. / How did the boundary between a secular West and a theocratic Islam emerge? When did Islam appear as an impossible secularization, as a religious Law supposed to stem from its historical failures? This work is a history of this boundary of secular reason. It shows how the very concept of secularization emerged from a religious geography through a study of Nineteenth Century French and German Imperial Thought. It begins with the Enlightenment and the French Expedition in Egypt and studies Hegelianism as an early form of Secularism. It studies the mutations of this boundary through French Republicanism in its relation to Africa and through the German Imperial tradition in its relation to the Ottoman Empire.

Hugh MacDiarmid est considéré comme le poète écossais le plus important du XXᵉ siècle. Il est surtout célébré pour les poèmes lyriques écrits en scots dans les années Vingt et le poème A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle, paru en 1926. Les poèmes des années Trente, pour la plupart issus du projet non publié Mature Art, ainsi que In Memoriam James Joyce (1955), ont rarement suscité le même intérêt de la part des critiques à cause de leur caractère fragmentaire. Pourtant, ils représentent l’aboutissement d’une crise stylistique complexe que cette étude se propose d’analyser à travers la question du lien, en particulier du lien problématique. L’œuvre complète dresse le portrait d’une humanité déchirée par les divisions sociales, la trahison et la mort mais évoque aussi une perte, une perte fondamentale et fondatrice de la modernité : la perte de l’altérité transcendante désignée par la figure de Dieu. Une analyse diachronique des poèmes révèle comment l’évolution de l’œuvre poétique de MacDiarmid peut être conçue comme une rupture avec le divin, comme un processus de sécularisation et de déthéologisation. À partir de A Drunk Man, l’instance d’énonciation, les pratiques intertextuelles, et le rythme de l’œuvre se métamorphosent pour permettre l’avènement de listes et de catalogues matérialistes. Grâce à un lexique de l’immanence et grâce à l’imitation de la forme infinie du pibroch, les poèmes dévoilent une philosophie post-chrétienne qui abandonne le principe de fin mais conserve celui de finalité. Les hommes et la poésie demeurent tournés vers une altérité immanente, qu’ils ne peuvent toutefois pas atteindre. Finalement, malgré la souffrance causée par une quête du sens jamais achevée, l’option existentielle du partage dans la nature s’unit au partage que seule l’écriture poétique rend possible, pour inscrire l’œuvre dans la plénitude. / Hugh MacDiarmid is considered the most important Scottish poet of the 20th century. He is mostly celebrated for the Scots lyrics he wrote in the 1920s and his long poem A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle, published in 1926. Because of their fragmentation, the poems of the Thirties, most of which were part of the unpublished project Mature Art, and In Memoriam James Joyce (1955), have not attracted the same critical attention. However, they represent the culmination of a very complex stylistic crisis that this study offers to analyse thanks to the question of bonds, especially problematic bonds. The poetry portrays humanity torn by social division, treason and death, but it deals with loss too, with a fundamental and founding loss for modern men: the loss of God, the embodiment of transcendent otherness. A diachronic analysis of the poems reveals how the transformation of MacDiarmid’s poetry may be understood as a rupture with the divine and as a process of secularisation. From A Drunk Man, the enunciator, the intertextual methods and the rhythm of the poetry change so as to allow the emergence of materialist lists and catalogues. Thanks to immanent terms and to the imitation of the infinite form of the pibroch, the poems display a post-Christian philosophy that abandons the concept of ending but retains that of end (aim). Humanity and poetry are still turned towards an immanent form of otherness, though one which they cannot reach. Finally, despite the pain caused by a never-ending quest for meaning, poetic writing makes serenity possible through the appearance of a vital existential option: sharing.

[pt] A manifestação da religiosidade é um traço humano presente em todas as sociedades. Por muitos séculos, a religião, principalmente a católica, ditou o comportamento e as regras de vida ocidentais. Com o processo de secularização, observa-se que a religião deixou de ser o centro da existência humana e um conjunto valores como a razão, a ciência, a tecnologia e o indivíduo passaram a ser considerados como fatores significativos da vida social. Esse processo, no entanto, não extinguiu o sentimento de religiosidade das sociedades. Novas configurações dessas manifestações se desenharam no cenário da modernidade e das sociedades contemporâneas. As Novas Comunidades, movimentos da Igreja Católica Apostólica Romana, surgem nesse contexto como tentativa do resgate da espiritualidade por meio da religião. Entre elas, estão a Comunidade Católica Shalom e a Canção Nova, movimentos que propõem uma maneira específica da vivência da religião. Esta pesquisa estuda as estratégias de evangelização dessas duas comunidades e a utilização que fazem dos meios de comunicação como forma de promover um retorno do sagrado à vida contemporânea, além de traçar um percurso do processo histórico que fundamenta e desenha esse quadro religioso. / [en] The manifestation of religiosity is a human characteristic presents in all societies. For many centuries, the religion, especially the Catholic, has dictated the behaviour and rules in Western societies With the secularization process , it is observed that religion is no longer the centre of human existence and a set of values such as reason, science , technology and the individual came to be regarded as significant factors of social life. This process, however, did not extinguish the feeling of religiosity from societies. New configurations of these manifestations were designed in the scenario of modernity and contemporary societies. New Communities, movements of the Roman Catholic Church, arise in this context to rescue spirituality through religion. Among them are the Shalom Catholic Community and New Song Community, movements that propose a specific way of experiencing religion. This research analyses the strategies of evangelization of these two communities and their use of media as a way to promote a return of the sacred to contemporary life, besides outlining a path of the historical process that underlies and designs this religious framework.

Syftet med denna kunskapsöversikt är att undersöka vad forskningen säger om argument för att ge religionsfrånvaro, ateism och icke-tro en plats i religionskunskapsundervisningen. Vetenskapliga källor i form av avhandlingar och artiklar ligger till grund för kunskapsöversikten och sammanfattningsvis pekar forskarna på att Sverige är ett sekulariserat eller möjligen postsekulariserat, pluralistiskt samhälle där skolan enligt läroplanen ska vara icke-konfessionell. Religionsutövningen har ändrat sin form och fått nya uttryck där andlighet och individualisering tar plats. Kursplanerna i religion i årskurs 1–6 saknar begrepp såsom ateism och icke-tro och observerad religionsundervisning i högstadiet och gymnasiet visar att de ickereligiösa ses som norm och att ämnesdiskussionerna mellan elever ofta utgår från ett vi och dem-tänk. Den insamlade forskningen lyfter flera argument för en breddad religionsundervisning såsom att ett utökat ämnesspråk kan skapa friare diskussionsmöjligheter. Fler elever kan identifiera sig med religionsämnet om även ateism och icke-tro betraktas som en form av tro, och icke-konfessionell religionsundervisning behöver omfatta även ett källkritiskt förhållningssätt. En vidgad begreppsförståelse skapar ett mer inkluderande klassrum där olikheter bemöts med större förståelse och respekt.

[pt] Esta tese pretende abordar a teoria da religião do filósofo e sociólogo alemão Jürgen Habermas (1929 –) em uma sociedade considerada pós-secular em que o Estado seja neutro, isto é, secular e plural diante das diversas visões de mundo. Habermas parte da reviravolta linguística pragmática pós-metafísica do século XX, dos jogos de linguagem do L. Wittgenstein tardio até a transformação semiótica da filosofia de Kant no a priori da comunidade transcendental de comunicação de K.-O. Apel, passando pelo caminho da linguagem em M. Heidegger, pela hermenêutica de H. G. Gadamer e a teoria dos atos de fala de J. Austin. Herdeiro desse arcabouço teórico, Habermas filia-se a ética do discurso, a partir da pragmática universal com a teoria do agir comunicativo. Os princípios da moralidade e da universalização da ética do discurso são repensados na teoria discursiva do direito e da democracia, a partir dos modelos normativos do liberalismo e do republicanismo, em que os direitos humanos e a soberania popular são entendidos como cooriginários no modelo da democracia deliberativa ou procedimental. Ora, é nesse modelo de um estado liberal, e assim secular, que é normatizada a vida de uma sociedade pós-secular, onde a religião persiste, apesar de seu entorno secular. Para que a religião possa existir no seu entorno secular, é preciso que crentes e não crentes travem um diálogo tolerante de aprendizagem mútua. Mas qual o papel que a religião ainda pode ter nessa sociedade? De que forma a filosofia ainda pode pensar Deus hoje? A defesa que se faz aqui, principalmente a partir da última obra de Habermas – Pensamento pós-metafísico II – é a de uma filosofia, de posicionamento agnóstico e metodologicamente ateu, que tomando por base Kant dialoga com a teologia contemporânea. É reconstruída, por Habermas, uma filosofia da religião de Kant, tendo como fundamento o contributo moral que a filosofia e a teologia, podem deixar para o conceito de uma sociedade moderna e da solidariedade anamnética. Essa filosofia da religião, que está presente no pensamento de Habermas não se dá a partir de provas ontológicas ou cosmológicas da existência de Deus, mas na fundamentação da exigência do dever moral, uma “fé moral”, uma filosofia da religião da boa conduta de vida, no dizer de G. Sala e J. A. Estrada. Somente assim poderíamos chamar Habermas de filósofo da religião. / [en] This thesis intends to approach the theory of religion of the German philosopher and sociologist Jurgen Habermas (1929 –) in a society considered post-secular in which the state is neutral, that is, secular and plural before the different world views. Habermas starts from the twentieth-century pragmatic, post-metaphysical linguistic turn, of L. Wittgenstein s late language games and the semiotic transformation of Kant s philosophy into the a priori of transcendental community of communication of K. O. Apel, going through on the way to language, by M. Heidegger, through the hermeneutics of H.G. Gadamer and the theory of speech acts from J. Austin. Heir to this theoretical framework, Habermas joins the discourse ethics, from universal pragmatics with the theory of communicative action. The principles of morality and universalization of discourse ethics are rethought in the discursive theory of law and democracy, based on the normative models of liberalism and republicanism, in which human rights and popular sovereignty are understood as co-originating in the model of deliberative or procedural democracy. Now, it is in this model of a liberal state, and thus secular, that the life of a post-secular society is normalized, where religion persists despite its secular surroundings. In order that religion exists in its secular environment, believers and non-believers must engage in a tolerant dialogue of mutual learning. But what role can religion still play in this society? How can philosophy think about God today? The defense made here, mainly from Habermas last work – Postmetaphysical Thinking II – is that of a philosophy, with an agnostic and methodologically atheist position, which, based on Kant, dialogues with contemporary theology. t is reconstructed by Habermas, a philosophy of religion by Kant, based on the moral contribution that philosophy and theology can leave for the concept of a modern society and anamnestic solidarity. This philosophy of religion, which is present in Habermas thought, is not based on ontological or cosmological proofs of the existence of God, but on the grounds of the requirement of moral duty, a moral faith, a philosophy of religion of good conduct of life, in the words of G. Sala and J. A. Estrada. Only then, we could call Habermas a philosopher of religion.

[pt] A presente dissertação pretende explorar o debate entre os pensadores germanoamericanos Hannah Arendt e Eric Voegelin sobre os fenômenos dos regimes totalitários, em especial o Nacional-Socialismo cuja ascensão ao poder foi presenciada por ambos. A correspondência entre os autores revela a discrepância de análises, que julgamos ser benéfica para a compreensão dos eventos. Arendt observava no totalitarismo uma originalidade terrível ao passo que Voegelin ressalta que o fenômeno era apenas o clímax de uma crise espiritual que assola a modernidade. Para levar à cabo a análise, foi estudada a teoria de cada um dos autores sobre o totalitarismo, de modo a aprofundar o entendimento sobre as questões levantadas / [en] The present dissertation intends to explore the debate between the GermanHannah Arendt and Eric Voegelin thinkers about the phenomena of totalitarian regimes, especially National Socialism, whose rise to power was witnessed by both. Correspondence between the authors reveals the discrepancy of teams, which we judged. Arendt observed a terrible originality in totalitarianism, while Voegelin emphasizes that the phenomenon was just the climax of a spiritual crisis that plagues modernity. To carry out the analysis, it was studied on the theory of each of the authors the way to deepen totalitarianism, the understanding as raised.

[pt] O processo de secularização do mundo ocidental trouxe, em sua esteira, diversas implicações teológico-pastorais para o cristianismo. Diante desta realidade, as Igrejas cristãs e cristãos necessitam de articulação para apresentar à seus contemporâneos a mensagem de Jesus de Nazaré de forma contextualizada. Com o objetivo de encontrar um caminho lúcido para responder às interpelações da sociedade secularizada, esta pesquisa recorreu às reflexões do teólogo Hans Kung, que permitiu responder as implicações e firmar a convicção à fé cristã e, sua relevância na atualidade e futuro. / [en] The process of secularization in the Western World brought, in its wake, several pastoral theological implications for Christianity. Faced by this reality, the Christian churches need to be articulated to be able to show the message of Jesus Christ from Nazareth in a coherent, mature and contextualized manner to their contemporaries. In order to find a lucid path to answer the questioning of a secularized society, this research made use of contributions by Hans Kung the theologian, allowing to clear up the Christian faith nowadays. Following this will be possible to find a good reflection about the secularization and current religious effervescence allowing the extreme conviction of a necessary and relevant Christian message in the modern world. Closing this exposure with pastoral theological proposals to the present time and a very soon explanation about the future of Christianity.

[pt] O desafio do ateísmo configura-se num grande clamor dos tempos modernos para a prática e o testemunho da fé cristã. A nova face da confissão atéia emerge dentro de uma sociedade marcada por grandes desafios sociais e humanos, tais como: o terrorismo religioso, os conflitos entre etnias e povos, a questão da dignidade da vida humana e a construção da justiça e da paz. A partir da compreensão do pensamento ateu de Richard Dawkins o presente trabalho buscará elucidar o conceito de neo-ateísmo, com seus objetivos, argumentos e propostas concretas de homem e sociedade. O ateísmo novo apresentado por pensadores como André Comte-Sponville, Daniel Dennett, Sam Harris, Michel Onfray, e próprio Dawkins, trazem novos questionamentos e interpretações e desafios, tanto para fé quanto para ciência. É a partir do efetivo diálogo entre a fé e o novo ateísmo, que o cristianismo poderá, revendo seu discurso e prática, responder concretamente e positivamente a tais desafios. Todavia o desejo da sociedade sem religião, acalentado pela maioria dos novos ateus, parece ser um ideal efêmero. O que se constata é o desejo de compor na sociedade uma nova meta-linguagem em contraposição à falta de dignidade humana e à crescente violência hodierna. O nosso objetivo, portanto, é propor um diálogo consistente entre fé cristã e neo-ateísmo, para se edificar uma linguagem da solidariedade, da coexistência e da fraternidade, e, prol de uma autêntica realização do humano. / [en] The challenge in the atheism configures itself in a big clamour of modern times to the practice and testimony of Christian faith. The new face of atheist confession emerges inside a society marked by social and human challenges, such as; religious terrorism, the ethnics and nations conflits, the question of life s diginity and the construction of justice and peace. From the understanding of the atheist thinking of Richard Dawkins this work intent to elucidate the neoatheism concept, with its objectives, arguments and proposals of man and society. The new atheism presented by thinkers such as André Comte-Sponville, Daniel Dennet, Sam Harris, Michel Onfray, and the Dawkins himself, brings new questions and interpretations and challenges, both faith and science for. It s from the effective dialogue between faith and the new atheism, that christianity will be able, reviewing its speech and practice, answer correctly and positively to such challenges. Nevertheless the desires of the society without religion, formed for the majority of new atheists, seems to be a ephemeral ideal. What we can note it s the desire compose on the society with a new metalanguage in opposition to the lack of human dignity and the growing violence of this days. Or goal, therefore, it s to propose a consistent dialogue between Christian faith and the neo-atheísm, to build a language of solidarity, of coexistence and fraternity, and, fowarding to an authentic realization of the human being.

From being an exotic small religion that has existed at a fading presence in southern Iraq and Iran mandeism has moved to the West and Sweden. As more and more Mandaeans encounter a new culture and a new society in Sweden it affects not only them as individuals but also their religion mandeism. In this essay, I have begun to examine how Mandaeans think about their identity and religion. I have taken my starting point in a broad theoretical discussion of identity, religion and secularisation. Mandeism is a gnostic religion that probably has its roots in today’s Israel / Palestine and sees John the Baptist as the last prophet. Baptism is the Mandaeans most important ritual and Mandaeans also have several sacred writings, in which the Ginza is considered the one that has most authority. The clergy is important for the performance of rituals and communication of religious knowledge, today there are only about thirty priests left in the global community and these are spread from Sweden to Australia. Among the Mandaeans who answered my questions, the most are relatively secular, only a few see themselves as religious. But they all feel that their Mandaean identity is important, baptism, ceremonies, family, and the Mandaean community is important as factors to keep their Mandaean identity alive. Several Mandaeans in Sweden are experiencing a difficulty to practice their religion in a traditional way due to the cold climate that makes it difficult to perform baptism, the lack of priests and mandi (temple there baptisms can be performed). These factors along with the meeting with a secular Western society and that it has gone from being a relatively geographically cohesive group to be scattered all over the world have led to increased secularisation. This has led to a debate within the Mandaean community how to meet the new situation, such as how to relate to the Mandaeans who marries non-Mandaeans, which previously had not been accepted and is very rare even today. / Från att ha varit en exotisk liten religion som har fört en tynande närvaro i södra Irak och Iran har mandeismen flyttat till västvärlden och däribland Sverige. När allt fler mandéer möter en ny kultur och ett nytt samhälle i Sverige påverkar det inte bara dem som individer utan även religionen mandeism. I denna uppsats har jag påbörjat att undersöka hur mandéer ser på sin identitet och religion. Jag har tagit min utgångspunkt i en bred teoretisk diskussion om identitet, religion och sekualisering. Mandeismen är en gnostisk religion som troligtvis har sina rötter i dagens Israel/Palestina och ser Johannes döparen som den sista profeten. Dopet är mandeismens viktigaste ritual och man har flera heliga skrifter, där Ginza anses vara den som har tyngst auktoritet. Prästerskapet är viktigt för utförandet av ritualer och förmedling av de religiösa kunskaperna, idag finns det bara ett trettiotal präster kvar inom mandeismen i världen och dessa är utspridda från Sverige till Australien. Bland de mandéer som har svarat på mina frågor är de flesta relativt sekulära, ett par ser sig som religiösa. Men samtliga tycker att deras mandeiska identitet är viktig, man ser dopet, högtider, familjen och den mandeiska gemenskapen som viktiga faktorer för att hålla sin mandeiska identitet levande. Flera mandéer i Sverige upplever en svårighet att utöva sin religion på ett traditionellt sätt pga ett kallt klimat som försvårar dop, avsaknad av präster och mandi (tempel där dop kan utföras). Dessa faktorer tillsammans med mötet med en sekulär västvärld och att man har gått från att vara en relativt geografiskt sammanhållen grupp till att vara utspridd över hela världen har lett till en ökad sekularisering. Detta har lett till en diskussion inom mandeismen hur man ska möta den nya situationen, tex hur man ska se på mandéer som gifter sig med ickemandéer, något som tidigare inte har varit accepterat och är mycket ovanligt.

Från att ha varit en exotisk liten religion som har fört en tynande närvaro i södra Irak och Iran har mandeismen flyttat till västvärlden och däribland Sverige. När allt fler mandéer möter en ny kultur och ett nytt samhälle i Sverige påverkar det inte bara dem som individer utan även religionen mandeism. I denna uppsats har jag påbörjat att undersöka hur mandéer ser på sin identitet och religion. Jag har tagit min utgångspunkt i en bred teoretisk diskussion om identitet, religion och sekualisering. Mandeismen är en gnostisk religion som troligtvis har sina rötter i dagens Israel/Palestina och ser Johannes döparen som den sista profeten. Dopet är mandeismens viktigaste ritual och man har flera heliga skrifter, där Ginza anses vara den som har tyngst auktoritet. Prästerskapet är viktigt för utförandet av ritualer och förmedling av de religiösa kunskaperna, idag finns det bara ett trettiotal präster kvar inom mandeismen i världen och dessa är utspridda från Sverige till Australien. Bland de mandéer som har svarat på mina frågor är de flesta relativt sekulära, ett par ser sig som religiösa. Men samtliga tycker att deras mandeiska identitet är viktig, man ser dopet, högtider, familjen och den mandeiska gemenskapen som viktiga faktorer för att hålla sin mandeiska identitet levande. Flera mandéer i Sverige upplever en svårighet att utöva sin religion på ett traditionellt sätt pga ett kallt klimat som försvårar dop, avsaknad av präster och mandi (tempel där dop kan utföras). Dessa faktorer tillsammans med mötet med en sekulär västvärld och att man har gått från att vara en relativt geografiskt sammanhållen grupp till att vara utspridd över hela världen har lett till en ökad sekularisering. Detta har lett till en diskussion inom mandeismen hur man ska möta den nya situationen, tex hur man ska se på mandéer som gifter sig med ickemandéer, något som tidigare inte har varit accepterat och är mycket ovanligt. / From being an exotic small religion that has existed at a fading presence in southern Iraq and Iran mandeism has moved to the West and Sweden. As more and more Mandaeans encounter a new culture and a new society in Sweden it affects not only them as individuals but also their religion mandeism. In this essay, I have begun to examine how Mandaeans think about their identity and religion. I have taken my starting point in a broad theoretical discussion of identity, religion and secularisation. Mandeism is a gnostic religion that probably has its roots in today’s Israel / Palestine and sees John the Baptist as the last prophet. Baptism is the Mandaeans most important ritual and Mandaeans also have several sacred writings, in which the Ginza is considered the one that has most authority. The clergy is important for the performance of rituals and communication of religious knowledge, today there are only about thirty priests left in the global community and these are spread from Sweden to Australia. Among the Mandaeans who answered my questions, the most are relatively secular, only a few see themselves as religious. But they all feel that their Mandaean identity is important, baptism, ceremonies, family, and the Mandaean community is important as factors to keep their Mandaean identity alive. Several Mandaeans in Sweden is experiencing a difficulty to practice their religion in a traditional way due to the cold climate that makes it difficult to perform baptism, the lack of priests and mandi (temple there baptisms can be performed). These factors along with the meeting with a secular Western society and that it has gone from being a relatively geographically cohesive group to be scattered all over the world have led to increased secularisation. This has led to a debate within the Mandaean community how to meet the new situation, such as how to relate to the Mandaeans who marries non Mandaeans, which previously had not been accepted and is very rare even today.