Relationen mellan kapitalstruktur och skuldsättningsgrad har undersökts i flera år och många teorier utvecklades för att kunna studera ämnet närmare. Studien tar därmed hänsyn till vilket inflytande kapitalstrukturen har på företag i fastighetsbranschen och tillverkning & industribranschen. Detta för att finna möjliga relationer som finns mellan kapitalstrukturens och finansieringsmöjligheternas påverkan på företagens skuldsättningsgrad. Uppsatsen undersökte variablerna företagsstorlek, bransch, soliditet och långsiktiga skulder till kreditinstitut. Dessutom, för att finna olika samband med hänsyn till skuldsättningsgrad och slutligen hur dessa har en påverkan på kapitalstrukturen hos företag. Variablerna tar hänsyn till finanskrisen och COVID-19 pandemin och studeras därmed vid fyra olika tidpunkter. De åren som tas i beaktning är 2008, 2010, 2018 samt 2020, detta för att urskilja om sambandet skiljer sig åt när ekonomin i Sverige varierar. De teorierna som gav stöd och underlag för denna studie var Modigliani och Millers teorem om kapitalstruktur, pecking order teorin, trade off teorin och agentteorin. Samtliga teorier undersökte sambandet mellan kapitalstrukturen och lönsamheten samt beskrev hur företag bör finansiera sin verksamhet för att uppnå en optimal skuldsättningsgrad i förhållande till kapitalstrukturen. Uppsatsen tillämpade kvantitativ ansats med hjälp av tre hypotesprövningar som testats med hjälp av Chi-två test, korrelationsanalys samt multipel regressionsanalys. Utifrån studiens resultat och tidigare studier kan man säga att företagsstorlek medför att företagen har olika uppsättningar av eget kapital och skuld. Olika omvärldsfaktorer kan ha en påverkan på skuldsättningsgraden där företag i olika storlek påverkas i olika grad. Exempelvis som asymmetrisk information som i sin tur tar hänsyn till företagsstorleken där den externa påverkan från ett mindre företag inte skulle vara lika stort som ett stort företag. Fastighetsbranschen tenderar att vara mer skuldsatt än tillverkning & industribranschen. Då fastighetsbranschen är mer kapitalintensiv till följd av kostsamma projekt vilket medför att de har stora långfristiga lån för att kunna driva verksamheten. Vidare finansieras dessa branscher på olika sätt. Exempelvis kan fastighetsföretagen ställa sina fastigheter som säkerhet för lånen och därmed anses ha bättre förutsättningar för att ta högre lån. Medan tillverkning & industribranschen har sina lång- och kortfristiga skulder fördelade i flera led, exempelvis underleverantörer. När ett företag väljer att finansiera verksamheten internt genom internt genererat kapital påverkas inte skuldsättningsgraden av långfristiga skulder till kreditinstitut. Däremot om de väljer att finansiera verksamheten externt sänker det företagsvärdet och därmed också soliditeten samt att företaget ökar storleken på långfristiga skulder till kreditinstitut. Studiens resultat finner stöd i olika teorier och tidigare forskning, därmed bidrar studien till en konsensus och studiens resultat är generaliserbar i Sverige. Framtida forskning bör studera fler branscher, annat kan vara att studera andra faktorer som kan ha en påverkan på kapitalstrukturen. / The relationship between capital structure and debt ratio has been investigated for years and many theories were developed to study the subject more closely. Thus, this study considers the influence the capital structure has on companies in the real estate and the manufacturing & industrial industry. This is to find possible relationships that exist between the influence of the capital structure and the financing possibilities on the companies' debt ratio. The essay examined the variables company size, industry, equity and long-term liabilities to credit institutions. In addition, to find different relationships regarding debt ratio and finally how these have an impact on the capital structure of companies. The variables consider the financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic and are thus studied at four different times. The years that are considered are 2008, 2010, 2018 and 2020, this is to discover whether the relationship differs when the economy in Sweden varies. This report is written in Swedish. The theories that provided support for this study were Modigliani and Miller's theorem on capital structure, the pecking order theory, the trade off theory and the agency theory. All of which examined the relationship between the capital structure and profitability and described how companies should finance their operations to achieve an optimal debt ratio in relation to the capital structure. This report applied a quantitative approach using three hypothesis tests that were tested using the Chi-Square test, correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis. Based on the results and previous studies, company size indicates that companies have different amounts of equity and debt. Different external factors can have an impact on the debt ratio, where companies of different sizes are affected to different degrees. For example, asymmetric information which in turn results in different influences regarding if the company is big or small. Where external influence from a smaller company would not be as great as a large company. The real estate industry tends to be more indebted than the manufacturing & industrial industry. As the real estate industry is more capital intensive because of costly projects, which means they have large long-term loans to be able to run the business. Furthermore, these industries are financed in different ways. For example, real estate companies can pledge their properties as collateral for loans and are thus considered to have better conditions for taking out higher loans. While the manufacturing & industrial sector has its long-term and short-term liabilities distributed among several levels, for example subcontractors. When a company chooses to finance operations internally through internally generated capital, the debt ratio is not affected by long-term debts to credit institutions. On the other hand, if they choose to finance the business externally, it lowers the company's value and thus also the equity ratio, and the company increases the size of long-term liabilities to credit institutions. The study's results find support in various theories and previous research, thus the study contributes to a consensus and the study's results are generalizable in Sweden. Future research should therefore study more industries that are more different from each other. Another could be to study other factors that can have an impact on the capital structure.

Covid-19-pandemin ändrade snabbt förutsättningarna på kapitalmarknaden och företagen tvingades fort att anpassa sig efter rådande restriktioner och rekommendationer. Denna studie undersöker hur kapitalstrukturen i bolag noterade på Stockholmsbörsen förändrades under pandemiåren 2020–2021 jämfört med före pandemin (2016–2019). Med hjälp av teorier för kapitalstruktur och tidigare studier identifierades fem centrala mått som hjälper till att förklara skuldsättningsgraden. Genom multivariat analys studeras och analyseras vilka variabler och samband som har påverkat kapitalstrukturen under perioden. Studiens resultat visar, i likhet med tidigare studier kring agerande under krissituationer, att företagens skuldsättningsgrad minskade under jämfört med före pandemin.

<p><em>Background:</em> The international accounting standard regarding goodwill gives opportunities to several accounting procedure choices, as goodwill is a complex, intangible asset. The valuation of goodwill affects equity/asset ratio and income statement, which gives that the stakeholders’ impression of the group’s financial statement is affected by the valuation of this asset. It has been pointed out that difficult economic times bring impairment loss to the fore. During financial crisis, equity/asset ratio may be significant as the economy of the groups is expected to be strained.</p><p><em>Purpose:</em> The purpose of this essay is to explain the appearance of the possible relationship between a group’s impairment loss for goodwill and their equity/asset ratio, during financial straits. Watts and Zimmerman’s debt/equity hypothesis serve as the starting point for our study. This hypothesis expresses, ceteris paribus, that the larger debt/equity ratio, the more likely it is to select accounting procedures that shift reported earnings from future periods to the current period. According to the hypothesis there should be a positive relationship between a group’s equity/asset ratio and their percentage share of goodwill impairment loss. A high equity/asset ratio would motivate a higher impairment loss for goodwill, as a lower equity/asset ratio would induce a lower impairment loss.</p><p><em>Method:</em> We decided to investigate all groups with the parent company listed on Nasdaq OMX Stockholm within the sectors financials and industrials. In financials, banks were excluded. The data was collected from annual reports of 2008 and was analyzed with the statistical analyzing methods correlation and regression.</p><p><em>Result/conclusion:</em> For those industrial groups which have had impairment loss for goodwill, the result is in accordance with Watts and Zimmerman’s hypothesis. A strong positive linear relationship could be found for those groups, but not for the sector as a whole. The equity/asset ratio therefore seems to not affect the decision of whether to lose impairment or not, but when the decision is made, the ratio of equity/asset seems to affect the size of the impairment loss. Within the financial sector, no relationship could be found – neither for the groups which have had impairment loss nor the sector as a whole.</p>

Background: The international accounting standard regarding goodwill gives opportunities to several accounting procedure choices, as goodwill is a complex, intangible asset. The valuation of goodwill affects equity/asset ratio and income statement, which gives that the stakeholders’ impression of the group’s financial statement is affected by the valuation of this asset. It has been pointed out that difficult economic times bring impairment loss to the fore. During financial crisis, equity/asset ratio may be significant as the economy of the groups is expected to be strained. Purpose: The purpose of this essay is to explain the appearance of the possible relationship between a group’s impairment loss for goodwill and their equity/asset ratio, during financial straits. Watts and Zimmerman’s debt/equity hypothesis serve as the starting point for our study. This hypothesis expresses, ceteris paribus, that the larger debt/equity ratio, the more likely it is to select accounting procedures that shift reported earnings from future periods to the current period. According to the hypothesis there should be a positive relationship between a group’s equity/asset ratio and their percentage share of goodwill impairment loss. A high equity/asset ratio would motivate a higher impairment loss for goodwill, as a lower equity/asset ratio would induce a lower impairment loss. Method: We decided to investigate all groups with the parent company listed on Nasdaq OMX Stockholm within the sectors financials and industrials. In financials, banks were excluded. The data was collected from annual reports of 2008 and was analyzed with the statistical analyzing methods correlation and regression. Result/conclusion: For those industrial groups which have had impairment loss for goodwill, the result is in accordance with Watts and Zimmerman’s hypothesis. A strong positive linear relationship could be found for those groups, but not for the sector as a whole. The equity/asset ratio therefore seems to not affect the decision of whether to lose impairment or not, but when the decision is made, the ratio of equity/asset seems to affect the size of the impairment loss. Within the financial sector, no relationship could be found – neither for the groups which have had impairment loss nor the sector as a whole.

Syfte: Den 9:e september föregående år uppdagade Sveriges Television att den socialdemokratiska regeringen har lagt fram en proposition till Riksdagen gällande kvotering i börsbolagsstyrelser. I propositionen föreslås att svenska börsbolagsstyrelser ska bestå av minst 40 procent kvinnor. • Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka om det finns ett statistiskt samband mellan andelen kvinnor i svenska börsbolagsstyrelser och kapitalstrukturen, samt om det finns ett statistiskt samband mellan kapitalstrukturen och om bolagets VD är kvinna. Metod: En kvantitativ metod med en deduktiv ansats har tillämpats. Data har samlats in från svenska börsbolags årsredovisningar från bokslutsåret 2015. Datan har använts för att bygga upp relevanta variabler som sedan har testats i en multivariat regressionsanalys. Resultat &amp; slutsats: På frågan om kvinnor påverkar kapitalstrukturen vill vi mena att resultatet av denna studie tyder på att svaret är nej. Resultatet ger belägg för att det inte finns något samband mellan andelen kvinnor i styrelsen och kapitalstrukturen men att det råder ett mycket svagt positivt samband mellan en kvinnlig VD och kapitalstrukturen. Förslag till fortsatt forskning: Den främsta begränsningen för denna undersökning är att hänsyn endast har tagits till ett bokslutsår, till skillnad från många tidigare vetenskapliga studier som har baserat undersökningarna på flera bokslutsår. Förslag till vidare forskning är således att genomföra denna undersökning över flera bokslutsår för att ta hänsyn till eventuella mönster i finansieringsbeslut. Den kvantitativa metoden bidrar med data som kan användas för att påvisa ett statistiskt samband. Ett annat förslag till fortsatt forskning är att genomföra samma studie fast tillämpa en kvalitativ metod för att analysera skillnader i finansieringsbeslut av män och kvinnor som verkställande direktörer och styrelsemedlemmar. Uppsatsens bidrag: Denna undersökning har bidragit med teoretisk kunskap om faktorer som påverkar kapitalstrukturen samt med praktisk kunskap om hur en eventuell kvoteringslag kan komma att påverka kapitalstrukturen. / Title: Does women in the boardroom affect the capital structure? – An analysis if there is a correlation between the proportion of women in the boardroom and the capital structure and between a female CEO and the capital structure. Aim: On September 9 last year, Sveriges Television revealed that the socialistic government has presented a proposition to the parliament concerning quotas in listed companies’ boards. The proposition proposes that boards in Swedish listed firms’ should consist of at least 40 percent women. • The purpose of this study is to investigate if there is a statistical correlation between the proportion of women on the boards of Swedish listed companies and the capital structure, and if there is a statistical correlation between the capital structure and if the company’s CEO is a woman. Method: A quantitative method with a deductive approach has been applied. Data has been collected from the Swedish listed companies’ annual financial reports from the year 2015. The data has been used to build up relevant variables, which has then been tested in a multivariate regression analysis. Result &amp; Conclusions: On the question if women affect the capital structure, we would like to think that the result of this study indicates the answer is no. The result provides evidence that there is no statistical correlation between the proportion of women on the board and the capital structure but that there is a marginal positive correlation between a female CEO and the capital structure. Suggestions for future research: The main limitation for this study is that consideration has only been given to one fiscal year, unlike many previous studies that have based the surveys on several fiscal years. Suggestion for further research is to implement this study on several fiscal years to account for any potential patterns in the financing decisions. The quantitative method contributes with data that can be used to detect a statistical relationship. Another suggestion for further research is to accomplish the same study, but apply a qualitative method to analyze the differences in financing decisions by men and women as CEOs and board members. Contribution of the thesis: This study has provided theoretical knowledge of factors affecting the capital structure as well as practical knowledge about how a possible quota law may affect the capital structure.

<p><strong><p>Background:</p><p>what affects company value becomes apparent. The capital structure is the relation between</p><p>borrowed capital and equity in a company´s financing mix. What impact changes in capital structure</p><p>have on company value is a widely debated subject within the theory of finance. If a relationship</p><p>between capital structure and company value exists the implication is that an optimal capital</p><p>structure where company value is maximized also exists.</p>During extreme market conditions like the period during fall 2008 the discussion of<strong><p>Aim:</p><p>company value exists among selected stocks and companies listed on Stockholmsbörsens OMXS30.</p>The aim of the thesis is to study whether a certain relationship between capital structure and<strong><p>Implementation:</p><p>performed among chosen stocks and companies. The empirical results eventuating from this have</p><p>been analyzed from the view of elected relevant theory.</p>With aim to fulfill the purpose of the thesis regression analysis has been<strong><p>Completion and results:</p><p>between debt ratio and enterprise value (EV) can be established. During more turbulent periods the</p><p>results is more scattered. The results of this thesis is more evidence that the debt´s gear on equity is</p><p>what mainly impacts price movements on the stock market and affects value, where high debt will</p><p>pay off during favorable conditions and be costly during bad conditions, rather than a specific capital</p><p>structure. A certain relationship between capital structure and company value cannot be established.</p><p>The results of this thesis is also evidence pointing out the difficulties in measuring the relationship</p><p>between two variables where one is the daily quoted market price of equity, which is greatly affected</p><p>by market psychology et cetera, and the other, capital structure, is only to be measured during</p><p>interim- and annual reports.</p>We find that during normal market conditions a positive relationship<strong><p> </p></strong></strong></strong></strong></strong></p>

<p>The bachelor's thesis is to examine the explanatory factors affecting the choice of capital structure in real estate companies. The analysis is based on data collected from the main financial reporting from 2007; all listed real estate companies listed on Swedish, Norwegian, Danish and Finnish stock market. Based on previous research and theories, we have defined five independent variables that are linked to the debt ratio, which are: profitability, growth, firm size, cost of debt and operational risk. The statistical tests have resulted in that we can say with certainty that profitable firms tend to have a lower debt to equity ratio. We can also say with certainty that property companies with high interest costs have a high level of indebtedness.</p> / <p>Kandidatuppsatsen har i syfte att undersöka de förklarande faktorer som påverkar valet av kapitalstruktur inom fastighetsbranschen. Analysen grundar sig på data insamlad från i huvudsak 2007 års bokslutsrapporter från alla börsnoterade fastighetsbolag som finns på den svenska, norska, danska och finska börsen. Utifrån tidigare forskning och teorier har vi definierat fem oberoende variabler som har en koppling till skuldsättningsgraden vilka är: lönsamhet, tillväxt, företagsstorlek, räntekostnad och operativ risk. De statistiska undersökningarna har resulterat i att vi kan med säkerhet säga att lönsamma företag tenderar att ha en lägre skuldsättningsgrad. Vi kan även med säkerhet säga att fastighetsbolag med låga räntekostnader har en högre skuldsättningsgrad och vice versa.</p>

<p><strong>Syfte</strong> Syftet med uppsatsen är att ta undersöka huruvida det finns någon skillnad mellan skuldsättningsgraden inom produkt- och tjänstebranschen. Ett delsyfte till uppsatsen är att undersöka hur räntekostnaden ser ut och huruvida det finns signifikanta samband mellan de olika branschernas gällande ovanstående faktorer.</p><p><strong>Metod</strong> Undersökningen är en fallstudie med en abduktiv kvantitativ ansats. Empirin består av sekundärdata i form av årsredovisningar.</p><p><strong>Teori</strong> Teorin har utgått ifrån genrens klassiker i form av Modigliani & Millers två teorem, Pecking order teorin samt Trade-off teorin.  Även Hallgrens modell om risk har tillämpats.</p><p><strong>Empiri</strong> Data är insamlad från sex byggföretag samt från sex revisionsföretag. Skuldsättningsgrad, räntekostnader samt omsättning är granskad dels inom branschen och dels jämförande mellan branscherna. Empirin är testad genom signifikansanalyser.</p><p><strong>Resultat </strong></p><ul><li>Det finns inga signifikanta samband mellan bygg- och revisionsbranschens skuldsättning</li><li>Det finns inga signifikanta samband mellan bygg- och revisionsbranschens räntekostnad</li><li>Det finns inga signifikanta samband i byggbranschens skuldsättning</li><li>Det finns inga signifikanta samband i revisionsbranschens skuldsättning</li></ul> / <p><strong>Purpose</strong> The purpose of the assay is to inquire contingent difference between the debt ratio in the businesses of product and service. Another part of the purpose is to inquire what the interest cost looks like and if there are any significant relationships between the different businesses regarding above factors.</p><p><strong>Method</strong> The enquire is a case study with an abductive qualitative approach. The empiric consists of secondary data origin from annual reports.  <strong></strong></p><p><strong>Theory</strong> The theory of the assay emanates from the classics of the genre with the theorems of Modigliani & Millers, the pecking order theory and the trade-off theory. Another theory that as been used is Hallgrens model concerning risk.</p><p><strong>Empirics</strong> Data is collected from six building companies and from six revision companies. Debt ratio, interest cost and turnover are all parameters that are reviewed, partly in its own business, partly compared between the businesses. The empirics are tested through significant analysis.</p><p><strong>Result</strong></p><ul><li>There is no significant correlation concerning the debt ratio of the business of building and revision. </li><li>There is no significant correlation concerning the interest costs of the business of building and revision </li><li>There is no significant correlation concerning the debt ratio of the business of building.</li><li>There is no significant correlation concerning the debt ratio of the business of revision</li></ul>

Syfte Syftet med uppsatsen är att ta undersöka huruvida det finns någon skillnad mellan skuldsättningsgraden inom produkt- och tjänstebranschen. Ett delsyfte till uppsatsen är att undersöka hur räntekostnaden ser ut och huruvida det finns signifikanta samband mellan de olika branschernas gällande ovanstående faktorer. Metod Undersökningen är en fallstudie med en abduktiv kvantitativ ansats. Empirin består av sekundärdata i form av årsredovisningar. Teori Teorin har utgått ifrån genrens klassiker i form av Modigliani &amp; Millers två teorem, Pecking order teorin samt Trade-off teorin.  Även Hallgrens modell om risk har tillämpats. Empiri Data är insamlad från sex byggföretag samt från sex revisionsföretag. Skuldsättningsgrad, räntekostnader samt omsättning är granskad dels inom branschen och dels jämförande mellan branscherna. Empirin är testad genom signifikansanalyser. Resultat Det finns inga signifikanta samband mellan bygg- och revisionsbranschens skuldsättning Det finns inga signifikanta samband mellan bygg- och revisionsbranschens räntekostnad Det finns inga signifikanta samband i byggbranschens skuldsättning Det finns inga signifikanta samband i revisionsbranschens skuldsättning / Purpose The purpose of the assay is to inquire contingent difference between the debt ratio in the businesses of product and service. Another part of the purpose is to inquire what the interest cost looks like and if there are any significant relationships between the different businesses regarding above factors. Method The enquire is a case study with an abductive qualitative approach. The empiric consists of secondary data origin from annual reports.  Theory The theory of the assay emanates from the classics of the genre with the theorems of Modigliani &amp; Millers, the pecking order theory and the trade-off theory. Another theory that as been used is Hallgrens model concerning risk. Empirics Data is collected from six building companies and from six revision companies. Debt ratio, interest cost and turnover are all parameters that are reviewed, partly in its own business, partly compared between the businesses. The empirics are tested through significant analysis. Result There is no significant correlation concerning the debt ratio of the business of building and revision. There is no significant correlation concerning the interest costs of the business of building and revision There is no significant correlation concerning the debt ratio of the business of building. There is no significant correlation concerning the debt ratio of the business of revision

Background: During extreme market conditions like the period during fall 2008 the discussion of what affects company value becomes apparent. The capital structure is the relation between borrowed capital and equity in a company´s financing mix. What impact changes in capital structure have on company value is a widely debated subject within the theory of finance. If a relationship between capital structure and company value exists the implication is that an optimal capital structure where company value is maximized also exists. Aim: The aim of the thesis is to study whether a certain relationship between capital structure and company value exists among selected stocks and companies listed on Stockholmsbörsens OMXS30. Implementation: With aim to fulfill the purpose of the thesis regression analysis has been performed among chosen stocks and companies. The empirical results eventuating from this have been analyzed from the view of elected relevant theory. Completion and results: We find that during normal market conditions a positive relationship between debt ratio and enterprise value (EV) can be established. During more turbulent periods the results is more scattered. The results of this thesis is more evidence that the debt´s gear on equity is what mainly impacts price movements on the stock market and affects value, where high debt will pay off during favorable conditions and be costly during bad conditions, rather than a specific capital structure. A certain relationship between capital structure and company value cannot be established. The results of this thesis is also evidence pointing out the difficulties in measuring the relationship between two variables where one is the daily quoted market price of equity, which is greatly affected by market psychology et cetera, and the other, capital structure, is only to be measured during interim- and annual reports.