公共行政在治理過程（process of governance）中應該居於何種地位與扮演什麼角色？其是否完全與政治無關，而且不負任何社會公義之價值議題的倡導責任？它應該如同市場取向的行政學者所言——追求小政府（minimal government），還是應該竭盡所能地回應社會的需求？公共行政人員應該著重專業技術，還是倫理思考？一九八○年代初期，六位美國維吉尼亞多元理工學院暨州立大學（Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University）的學者，有感於當時的行政學術之發展似乎無法釐清前述的課題，而新公共行政（New Public Administration）的主張並未能在實務上發揮作用，又鑑於當時一股貶責官僚（bureaucracy bashing）之風盛行。是以，他（她）們撰寫了一篇名為〈公共行政與治理過程：轉變政治對話〉（Public Administration and the Governance Process: Shifting the Political Dialogue）的文章。因為維吉尼亞州立大學的所在地名為黑堡，故該文亦被學者簡稱為黑堡宣言（Blacksburg Manifesto）。黑堡宣言試圖針對前述課題，提出一些規範性的主張，俾以解決當代公共行政所遭遇的學術與實務的雙重困境。該宣言認為重建公共行政在治理過程中的正當性，乃是化解危機的核心。 本論文研究的範圍不限於黑堡宣言一文，而是該宣言首席撰寫者Gary L. Wamsley所稱之黑堡觀點（Blacksburg Perspective）。所謂黑堡觀點，乃是以黑堡宣言為主軸，所發展出來的一系列的論述（discourse）。換言之，就是在黑堡宣言提出重建公共行政（refounding public administration）之主張後，陸續衍生的一些相關研究以及其中所提出的觀念。本論文希望探究：黑堡觀點針對上述課題所提供的論述為何？進而藉由認識論（epistemology）的分析，瞭解它立於何種哲學基礎之上，俾以達成所宣稱的境界？同時，也希望能夠檢視黑堡觀點本身的限制所在，提供後續相關研究的思考線索。最後，作者更嘗試提出一些補充性的見解，希望能在學術上有所貢獻。 基於上述的研究動機和目的，本論文的各章的鋪陳內容如下： 第一章緒論，說明本論文的研究動機與目的、基本概念界定、研究主題以及方法； 第二章黑堡觀點的內涵，將探討黑堡觀點在美國行政學術中的定位及其思想淵源，並還原黑堡宣言一文的重要主張，進而以黑堡觀點反思傳統的行政理論和新公共管理； 第三章黑堡觀點的認識論之分析，則分別探討其所蘊含的結構主義與後結構主義之色彩，進而提出前述兩種思維是否能夠共存的見解； 第四章民主行政的實踐，則是根據第二、三章的論述為基礎，進一步耙梳黑堡觀點之下的民主行政之內涵，包括公共行政參與治理的正當性、公共利益、公共對話、公民意識、公共行政人員等課題； 第五章結論，以前述的民主行政之實踐意涵，歸納黑堡點的特色及其在公共行政理念上的影響，並指出其理論的內在弔詭。然後，對照我國行政實務，試舉例說明黑堡觀點的啟發。最後，指出本論文的研究限制以及作者對後續研究的建議。 本論文的特色在於，超越相關的研究，針對黑堡觀點的認識論進行分析，此實為一種開創性的研究。抑有進者，作者認為本論文應能夠產生如后的貢獻： 第一，提供不同於時下流行之管理途徑的觀點，刺激學界思索其它的研究途徑； 第二，為後續有興趣於此一途徑的研究者，奠定初步的基礎，至少本論文在理論耙梳和認識論的分析方面，應該有所助益； 第三，作者提出對於黑堡觀點之內在弔詭的反省，以及從實務的角度思考黑堡觀點的實踐意涵，希望能夠做為後續研究的線索和方向。 第一章 緒 論••••••••••••••••••••••••1 第一節 研究動機•••••••••••••••••1 第二節 研究目的•••••••••••••••••3 第三節 基本概念的界定••••••••••••••4 第四節 研究主題與方法••••••••••••••16 第二章 黑堡觀點的內涵••••••••••••••••••23 第一節 黑堡觀點的興起及其與新公共行政的關係•••25 第二節 黑堡宣言的主張••••••••••••••44 第三節 以黑堡觀點反思傳統的行政理論•••••••61 第四節 以黑堡觀點反思新公共管理•••••••••83 第三章 黑堡觀點的認識論之分析••••••••••••117 第一節 黑堡觀點的結構主義色彩••••••••••118 第二節 黑堡觀點的後結構主義傾向•••••••••151 第三節 結構主義與後結構主義的共容性之探討••••187 第四章 黑堡觀點之民主行政的實踐••••••••••••197 第一節 公共行政參與治理的正當性•••••••••198 第二節 公共利益•••••••••••••••••218 第三節 公共對話•••••••••••••••••251 第四節 公民意識•••••••••••••••••275 第五節 公共行政人員•••••••••••••••293 第五章 結 論•••••••••••••••••••••••317 第一節 黑堡觀點的特色及其影響••••••••••317 第二節 黑堡觀點的內在弔詭與限制•••••••••326 第三節 黑堡觀點對我國行政實務的啟發•••••••334 第四節 本論文的研究限制與對後續研究的建議••••355 參考資料••••••••••••••••••••••••••361 / This thesis concerned about the legitimacy of public administration in the process of governance. Since administrative management and behavioralism rise the efficiency became the subject matter in public administration. However, Blacksburg Manifesto reminds us the public administration can not be equal with management and efficiency are not public administration's only value. So, the author of this thesis is interested in Blacksburg Perspective's refounding public administration. This study includes Blacksburg Perspective's discourse about public administration and these discourses' epistemology. Firstly, the author summarizes Blacksburg Manifesto and induces characters of the Manifesto. Secondly, he criticizes traditional public management and new public management bases on the Blacksburg Perspective. Thirdly, to analyze the epistemology of Blacksburg Perspective includes structuralism and poststructuralism. Fourthly, this study introduces the implications of democratic public administration of Blacksburg Perspective. Fifthly, the author bases on Blacksburg Perspective rethink administrative practice in his country. Finally, to examine theoretical paradoxes of Blacksburg Perspective. The Author hopes this study is helpful for students are interested in this relative field about democratic public administration and by this thesis we can think about how to refound the legitimacy of public administration in process of governance.

本論文的研究目的有三：（一）學習國際政治經濟學的分析方法：從文獻閱讀中，學習國際政治經濟學的分析方法，包括此分析方法的內涵和適用範疇。（二）試用此方法來分析柯林頓政府對中共的貿易政策：本論文試用國際政治經濟學的自由主義的觀點，來分析柯林頓政府對中共的貿易政策，並試圖藉由此觀點驗證以下假設性問題：柯林頓政府對中共的貿易政策符合自由主義的精神；亦即，柯林頓政府是根據自由主義的精神來制定對中共的貿易政策。（三）試用此方法分析最惠國待遇問題：本論文認為美中的貿易問題以續惠問題最有代表性，因為續惠問題不僅反應美國對經濟利益的關切，更反應美國對人權價值的關切，因此選擇此問題作為柯林頓政府對中共貿易政策的案例分析。本論文試圖用國際政治經濟學的方法來分析續惠問題，並且驗證以下假設：柯林頓政府將人權與最惠國待遇從掛勾到脫勾的政策變化，符合自由主義的精神；亦即，柯林頓政府是根據自由主義的精神而決定續惠中共。 根據本論文的研究結果，認為柯林頓政府是以自由主義的觀點推動貿易政策，在自由主義的觀點中，自由貿易最能達到貿易各國互利互惠，而自由貿易的核心原則即是「不歧視原則」（亦即最惠國待遇原則），一旦不歧視原則（最惠國待遇原則）被破壞，自由貿易也無從存在。因此，雖然柯林頓政府為了推動公平、互惠的貿易秩序會對他國威脅使用三０一條款、課徵反傾銷稅、施以高姿態的政治壓力，卻從來很少運用撤銷最惠國待遇來威脅他國就範。最惠國待遇是自由主義貿易政策的核心原則，柯林頓政府為了推動自由貿易秩序，絕對不會動搖這個核心原則。同樣的道理適用在中國的最惠國待遇問題上。柯林頓總統入主白宮之後，並沒有認真考慮過撤銷中共的最惠國待遇，因為一旦他撤銷中共的最惠國待遇，不僅美「中」關係受損，美國經濟利益受損，美國賴以建立貿易秩序的核心原則更將受到破壞。此即柯林頓政府所以將人權問題和最惠國待遇問題脫勾的最重要原因。人權固然是自由主義看重的價值，最惠國待遇亦是自由主義看重的價值，美國不可能為了取得其中之一，而放棄另外之一，也就是美國不可能為了中共不改善人權，即取消最惠國待遇。將這兩者掛勾自始就不可行，也不是有效的政策，柯林頓政府將這兩者脫勾也就是必然的了。根據以上的研究結果，筆者認為驗證了本文的兩個假設性問題。 第一章 緒論 1 第一節 研究動機與研究目的 1 第二節 研究方法與論文架構 2 第三節 研究範圍與研究限制 4 第二章 國際政治經濟學的觀點 6 第一節 導論：何謂國際政治經濟學？ 6 第二節 重商主義(Mercantilism)的觀點 8 第三節 自由主義(Liberalism)的觀點 15 第四節 結構主義(Structuralism)的觀點 22 第五節 小結 29 第三章 戰後美國貿易政策的演變 33 第一節 戰後到一九七０年代的自由貿易政策 33 第二節 一九七０年代以後的貿易保護主義政策 38 第三節 小結 46 第四章 美國貿易政策之制定及執行機構 49 第一節 立法部門：國會 50 第二節 行政部門：總統與其他部會 54 第三節 民間力量：利益團體 60 第四節 小結 63 第五章 柯林頓政府對中共的貿易政策 66 第一節 經濟安全：柯林頓政府施政的中心目標 66 第二節 柯林頓政府的貿易政策 72 第三節 柯林頓政府的中國政策 79 第四節 柯林頓政府對中共的貿易政策 85 第六章 案例分析：續延中共最惠國待遇問題 91 第一節 美「中」最惠國待遇爭議的由來 92 第二節 美國續惠中共問題案的發展 95 第三節 國際政治經濟學的分析 107 第七章 結論 115 參考書目 118 / This thesis endeavors to use International Political Economy perspectives as an analytical framework to explain Clinton Administration's trade policy toward the People's Republic of China. According to the research, Clinton Administration's trade policy toward the PRC is based on the perspective of liberalism. His decision to delink "human rights" from "MFN" can also be rationalized in the perspective of liberalism.

<p>This dissertation explores ten teachers´ approaches to managing conflicts with/between pupils. The relevance of gender is analysed according to the strategies and representations chosen by the teachers. The methods used for data collection include ´rounds´, role-plays and ongoing reflexivity, mainly in single-sex groups. Three main strategies were identified in managing conflicts with/between pupils: challenging, confirming and physically touching. The strategy of challenging reveals that teachers have high expectations of how competent pupils ought to be. It is no longer enough to be competent and independent as a pupil (in Sweden); he or she is also expected to have an integrated ethic of caring. Values such as an ethic of caring are conventionally associated with femininity, and are usually invisible and/or low status; though they have now become the dominant norm for both female and male teachers. The strategy of confirming is used to give support to the pupil but there is a risk of confirming one individual “too much” which can lead to relational problems with other pupils. Physical touching as a strategy relates to dilemmas arising from gendered expectations of physicality in teacher-pupil interaction. Overall, difficulties were found in getting male teachers to discuss and ‘role-play’ conflicts with girls, which did not arise with female teachers concerning conflicts with boys. Also criticized were the demands on teachers’ workloads as a result of their social responsibility for pupils’ welfare, and also lack of institutional support. When the teachers had time to reflect together on their experiences, they seemed willing to criticize norms and representations. Four phases in the mode of talking were identified: (1) the telling of an experience; (2) interpretation of experience as a form of difference, either as deviance or according to gender; (3) narration of experience that contradicts the above dichotomy of difference; and (4) ongoing reflexivity resulting in motivation to change strategy or strengthen former strategies based on a wider awareness of work context.</p>

Within the field of cinema studies, the question of visual representation is a fundamental pillar. An immense volume of theoretical work has been written on the subject, with various academic approaches such as feministic, postcolonial and gay/lesbian. Yet there is a large social group that seems to have been overlooked within the representational discourse: the elderly. This group of people appears to be a blind spot on the multicultural retina, too often neglected within the area of cultural studies. But as the baby boomer generation, who has always redefined the different stages of life (youth, adulthood, middle age), is entering old age, things are slowly changing. Utilizing a post-structural framework, this essay investigates the visual representation of elderly within the cinematic landscape of the western world. Since the subject is somewhat uncharted territory, a broad interdisciplinary approach is necessary where modern social gerontology meets the field of cinema studies. In a cultural context, social grouping based on age implies a distinct position versus the normative, compare to other types of minorities. Changes of sex, skin colour or sexual preference are uncommon, whereas changing age is the fate of every human being. The elderly as the “the Other” is thus every man’s future destiny. This rather unique position carries an immanent paradox since the only way to avoid the periphery in question is death. As a philosophical counterpoint to this rather dystopian outlook, Gilles Deleuze’s theory of becoming is brought into the discussion. The theoretical part of the essay ends with the ontology of age, a historical review of the field of gerontology and the concept of ageism. After a descriptive section, where contemporary examples of film and other media with old age as a main theme are identified, the analytical part of the essay ensues. With the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu as a theoretical frame of reference, a close reading of the films Avalon (Axel Petersén, 2011), About Schmidt (Alexander Payne, 2002) and RED (Robert Schwentke, 2010) are performed, emphasising aging identity and imposed age-normative behaviour. The semiotics of the aged body is discussed through Jacques Lacans mirror stage and Julia Kristevas abject theory, exemplified by the works of Donigan Cumming. The final part of the essay concerns the great eternal questions within film philosophy: life, death, time and memory, which for the elderly are not merely philosophical concerns but rather notable existential realities. Using Deleuze as a philosophical toolbox, these grand topics are illuminated with examples from The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (David Fincher, 2008), Amour (Michael Haneke, 2012) and Ingmar Bergmans classical works, such as Smultronstället (1957), Saraband (2003) and Gycklarnas afton (1953).

Boris Akunin’s historical detective novels have sold more than eight million copies in Russia, and have been translated into nearly a dozen languages. Boris Akunin is the pen name of literary critic and translator Grigory Chkhartishvili. Born in 1956 in the republic of Georgia, he published his first detective stories in 1998. His first series of novels, beginning with Azazel’ and followed by Turetskii gambit, feature a dashing young police inspector, Erast Fandorin. Fandorin’s adventures take place in the Russian Empire of the late nineteenth century, and he regularly finds himself at the center of key historic events. The first book takes place over one summer, May to September 1876, as the intrepid Fandorin, on his first case, unveils an international organization of conspirators—Azazel’—bent on changing the course of world events. The second takes place two years later from July 1877 to March 1878 during Russia’s war with the Ottoman Empire. The young detective again clashes with Azazel’, as he unravels a Turkish agent’s intricate plan to weaken and destroy the Russian state. Both adventures have proven wildly popular and entertaining, while maintaining a certain literary value. The exploration of time and space in Russian literature was once a popular subject of discourse, but since the 1970s it has been somewhat ignored, rarely applied to contemporary works, and even less to works of popular culture. Akunin’s treatment of time and space, however, especially given the historical setting of his works, is unique. Azazel’, for example, maintains a lightning pace with a tight chronology and a rapidly changing series of locales. Turetskii gambit presents a more laconic pace, and, though set in the vast Caucasus region, seems more claustrophobic as it methodically works towards its conclusion. Both works employ a seemingly impersonal narrator, who, nonetheless, speaks in a distinctly 19th century tone, and both works cast their adventures within the framework of actual historical events and locations. This thesis analyzes core theories in literary time and space, applying them then to Akunin’s historical detective literature.

Boris Akunin’s historical detective novels have sold more than eight million copies in Russia, and have been translated into nearly a dozen languages. Boris Akunin is the pen name of literary critic and translator Grigory Chkhartishvili. Born in 1956 in the republic of Georgia, he published his first detective stories in 1998. His first series of novels, beginning with Azazel’ and followed by Turetskii gambit, feature a dashing young police inspector, Erast Fandorin. Fandorin’s adventures take place in the Russian Empire of the late nineteenth century, and he regularly finds himself at the center of key historic events. The first book takes place over one summer, May to September 1876, as the intrepid Fandorin, on his first case, unveils an international organization of conspirators—Azazel’—bent on changing the course of world events. The second takes place two years later from July 1877 to March 1878 during Russia’s war with the Ottoman Empire. The young detective again clashes with Azazel’, as he unravels a Turkish agent’s intricate plan to weaken and destroy the Russian state. Both adventures have proven wildly popular and entertaining, while maintaining a certain literary value. The exploration of time and space in Russian literature was once a popular subject of discourse, but since the 1970s it has been somewhat ignored, rarely applied to contemporary works, and even less to works of popular culture. Akunin’s treatment of time and space, however, especially given the historical setting of his works, is unique. Azazel’, for example, maintains a lightning pace with a tight chronology and a rapidly changing series of locales. Turetskii gambit presents a more laconic pace, and, though set in the vast Caucasus region, seems more claustrophobic as it methodically works towards its conclusion. Both works employ a seemingly impersonal narrator, who, nonetheless, speaks in a distinctly 19th century tone, and both works cast their adventures within the framework of actual historical events and locations. This thesis analyzes core theories in literary time and space, applying them then to Akunin’s historical detective literature.

This dissertation explores ten teachers' approaches to managing conflicts with/between pupils. The relevance of gender is analysed according to the strategies and representations chosen by the teachers. The methods used for data collection include 'rounds', role-plays and ongoing reflexivity, mainly in single-sex groups. Three main strategies were identified in managing conflicts with/between pupils: challenging, confirming and physically touching. The strategy of challenging reveals that teachers have high expectations of how competent pupils ought to be. It is no longer enough to be competent and independent as a pupil (in Sweden); he or she is also expected to have an integrated ethic of caring. Values such as an ethic of caring are conventionally associated with femininity, and are usually invisible and/or low status; though they have now become the dominant norm for both female and male teachers. The strategy of confirming is used to give support to the pupil but there is a risk of confirming one individual "too much" which can lead to relational problems with other pupils. Physical touching as a strategy relates to dilemmas arising from gendered expectations of physicality in teacher-pupil interaction. Overall, difficulties were found in getting male teachers to discuss and 'role-play' conflicts with girls, which did not arise with female teachers concerning conflicts with boys. Also criticized were the demands on teachers' workloads as a result of their social responsibility for pupils' welfare, and also lack of institutional support. When the teachers had time to reflect together on their experiences, they seemed willing to criticize norms and representations. Four phases in the mode of talking were identified: (1) the telling of an experience; (2) interpretation of experience as a form of difference, either as deviance or according to gender; (3) narration of experience that contradicts the above dichotomy of difference; and (4) ongoing reflexivity resulting in motivation to change strategy or strengthen former strategies based on a wider awareness of work context.

L’analyse sémiotique de l’architecture domestique a pour but de voir comment se manifestent, à travers le langage architectural, les comportements codés qui remplacent la communication linguistique, en postulant qu'il y a un déterminisme de l'architecture par les valeurs macro-sociales, et que le signe architectural doit être considéré comme un marqueur anthropologique. L’approche pluridisciplinaire qui allie des champs aussi divers que l’architecture, la sémiologie et l’anthropologie, a pour ambition de contribuer d’une part, à la sémiotique de l’architecture en proposant une méthodologie pour l’analyse et le découpage d’un corpus architectural, et d’une autre, d’élargir le champ de la géographie urbaine à de nouvelles disciplines, et enfin, de proposer une lecture inédite du paysage urbain à Beyrouth à travers l’étude comparative de deux typologies architecturales. L’approche sémiotique proposée peut être appliquée en tant qu’outil de la géographie urbaine à des corpus architecturaux ou des pans du tissu urbain afin d’appréhender les mécanismes de production et d’obsolescence des formes, et par extension de la ville. / The purpose of a semiotic analysis of architecture is to see how non verbal codes manifest themselves through the architectural language, based upon the idea that such a language is conditioned by macro-social values, and therefore the architectural sign should be considered as an anthropological marker. This multi-disciplinary approach combining different fields such as architecture, semiotics and anthropology, is aimed on one hand at contributing to semiotics by proposing a methodology for the analysis of an architectural corpus, and on the other hand, to broadening the field of urban geography to new disciplines, and finally, to providing a new analysis of Beirut’s urban fabric through the comparative case study of two architectural typologies. The proposed semiotic approach can be applied as a tool of urban geography to architectural corpuses and urban fabrics in order to understand the mechanisms of production and obsolescence of form.

The thesis is interested in the problem of musical sign. In which ways can we speak about musical sign and which elements of musical material can become signs? These are the basic questions which we are interested in. This thesis is divided into three parts. The first part attends to the common theory of sign. The historical survey with the main ideas of philosophers and thinkers will be helpful to find out basic terms and problems of semiotics. In the second part of thesis we look at the historical reflection of musical sign in order to find out in which way it was treated with music and musical sign in each historical period of European music. In the third part we focus on musical semiotics, but we will consider some problems of musical aesthetics and musical psychology, too. In the end we make recapitulation of answers to the aforesaid questions.

O presente estudo objetiva problematizar situações de violência em relacionamentos conjugais entre lésbicas numa perspectiva de gênero. O mito da mulher dócil e submissa em muito contribui para o aumento da vulnerabilidade e invisibilidade destes casais. Assim, resolvemos escutar os discursos de mulheres lésbicas envolvidas em relações de violência conjugal com suas companheiras, a partir dos seguintes passos orientadores: analisamos possíveis inter-relações entre as concepções das participantes acerca dos gêneros e suas performances em situações de violência e problematizando possíveis relações entre regulações da categoria gênero e suas vivências. Foi utilizada a entrevista em profundidade tendo como estímulo um álbum contendo imagens, livres e resgatadas da internet, que representam cenas de um relacionamento íntimo entre duas mulheres. A produção de dados foi realizada na Colônia Penal Feminina do Recife. Nossas quatro participantes afirmaram ser lésbicas, possuírem antes da detenção uma relação estável com outra mulher e terem se envolvido em situações de violência conjugal com suas companheiras, que geraram denúncias (violência física). Em suas falas o argumento binário das diferenças entre comportamentos atribuídos a homens e mulheres serve como base para uma série de explicações causais; no entre espaço estão seus desejos, vivências e fantasias. A posição lésbica é para elas uma composição de diferentes elementos daquilo que se associa a homens e mulheres, um híbrido, que demanda uma cartografia específica para sua compreensão. As expressões de dominação incorporadas por estas mulheres em suas relações, sejam estas manifestações públicas ou intimas, aparecem como uma reinterpretação de antigos personagens de uma mesma história. Compreender os jogos de poder e posicionamentos experienciados nos parece fundamental para ampliar o debate sobre como estas estratégias e mecanismos podem operar em qualquer relação. Nesta perspectiva a leitura das identidades forjadas pelas posições de gênero, enquanto dispositivo de poder, se apresenta com grande potencial analítico de um sem número de situações de violência e nos afasta de uma perspectiva essencialista sobre a subjetividade e o sexo e efeitos de dominação em diferentes níveis relacionais, sejam micro ou macrossociais. / This study aims to discuss situations of violence in conjugal relationships among lesbians from a gender perspective. The myth of docile and submissive woman contribute very much to the increasing of vulnerability and invisibility of these couples. Thus, we decided to listen to lesbian woman involved in situations of conjugal violence with their partners oriented by the following steps: we analyzed possible interrelations between the participants conceptions on gender and their performances in situations of violence and questioning possible interrelations between regulations of the category of gender and their experiences. This was used the depth interview, using was stimulus an album of images freely picked from internet, witch represent scenes of intimate relationship between two women. The production of data was conducts at the female prison Recife. The four participants affirmed themselves as lesbian, having stable relationship with women prior to the detention and being involved in situations of conjugal violence with their partners that led to denunciation (physical violence). In their speeches the binary argument of the differences attributed to men and woman serves as the base for plenty of causal explanations. In the inter space, there are their desires, experiences and fantasies. The lesbian position is, for them, a composition off different elements of what is associated to men and women, a hybrid, that demands a specific cartography for its understanding. The expressions of domination incorporated by these women in their relations, whet her in public or intimate manifestations seem to be a reinterpretations of old characters of the same story. His crucial to understanding the games of power and positions experienced in order to winder the debate on how these strategies and mechanisms can operate in any relation. In this sense, the identities created by gender positions as power devices, seems to have a great analytical potential regarding many situations of violence and keep us for from an essentialist perspective on subjectivity. The sex and the effects of domination in different relational levels, are micro or macro-socials.