Syftet med föreliggande studie är att med utgångspunkt i relevant forskning analysera om läromedel, som används i engelskundervisningen i årskurserna F-3, med tillhörande sångtexter, rim och ramsor stöder elevers språkinlärning i engelska. Metoder som använts i studien var dels en delstudie om vilket läromedel i engelskundervisningen kommunala skolor i Sverige använder i årskurserna F-3. Därutöver gjordes en bild- och textanalys av materialets innehåll samt jämfördes materialets verb med Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) (Davies, 2008-) och metoden type/token-ratio (TTR) för att kunna jämföra den inbördes variationen av verb och substantiv i materialet. Resultatet visar att läromedlet stöder språkinlärningen hos elever i de yngre åldrarna. Majoriteten av verben i materialet fanns med bland de 300 mest frekventa verben i COCA (Davies, 2008-) och skillnaden mellan de undersökta ordklasserna var inte lika stora som befarat. Materialet är i linje med och stöds av kursplanen för engelskämnet i Lgr 11 (Skolverket, 2011b), dock med få undantag. Språket i materialet är mestadels skrivet i presens. Slutsatsen som kan dras är att läromedel med tillhörande sånger, rim och ramsor kan stödja elevers språkinlärning i engelska.

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L'influenza del diritto sovranazionale, l'ampliamento del concetto di “materia penale” e la prospettiva “integrata” della legalità hanno portato ad una progressiva ridefinizione del perimetro applicativo delle garanzie intertemporali. In particolare, le norme della legge sull’esecuzione della pena, comprese quelle sui benefici penitenziari e sulle misure alternative, sono state sempre considerate di natura processuale, con la conseguente applicazione del canone del tempus regit actum, nonostante si sia sottolineata l'opportunità di evitare modifiche peggiorative di tali norme rispetto al momento in cui si stringe il "patto rieducativo" con il condannato. Il criterio formalistico, che distingue i diversi regimi di efficacia nel tempo in base alla “natura” delle norme o degli istituti, presenta mai superati limiti: come distinguere le norme di “natura” sostanziale da quelle di “natura” processuale, se si possa parlare realmente di “natura” processuale o sostanziale e soprattutto se tutta la categoria delle norme processuali si sottragga al divieto di retroattività in peius, sono domande a cui non si sono date risposte univoche. Tali latenti problematiche sono recentemente (ri)emerse con l’emanazione della c.d. legge “Spazzacorrotti”, che ha inserito molti dei delitti contro la p.a. nell’elenco di quelli ostativi alla concessione dei benefici e delle misure alternative previste dalla legge sull’Ordinamento penitenziario. La Consulta, con la sentenza n. 32/2020, ricorrendo al criterio dell’incidenza qualitativa sulla libertà personale, ha ritenuto illegittimo il diritto vivente consolidato, secondo cui le modifiche peggiorative in materia di misure alternative e la sospensione dell’ordine di carcerazione ex art. 656 c.p.p. potrebbero essere applicate anche per fatti commessi prima della loro entrata in vigore. L'obiettivo del lavoro è stato quello di condurre una riflessione in merito all'estensione dell'ambito operativo del principio di irretroattività della legge penale sfavorevole, evidenziandone le antiche e fondamentali istanze garantistiche, per verificare se -ed in quali termini- possa trovare applicazione in materia di esecuzione della pena alla luce dei principi enunciati nella Cedu ed evidenziati dalla Corte di Strasburgo e dalla Consulta. Il lavoro si propone di indagare gli effetti dell'approccio sostanzialistico della Corte Edu, che sembra aver dato l'impulso per riconsiderare la formalistica distinzione tra norme sostanziali e processuali, nell'ottica di estendere il divieto di retroattività in malam partem alle modifiche legislative incidenti in via diretta sulla qualità e sulla durata della pena. Inoltre, l’impostazione sovranazionale, secondo cui la disciplina prevista per la successione di leggi può riferirsi anche ai mutamenti giurisprudenziali in ossequio ad una prospettiva "integrata" delle diverse concezioni della legalità, ha dischiuso da tempo un orizzonte di nuove riflessioni in materia di irretroattività. Nel presente lavoro, in particolare, si vogliono analizzare gli effetti del revirement sfavorevole compiuto da Strasburgo nella sentenza Mursic c. Croazia, in punto di spazio minimo vitale per il detenuto e computo del mobilio, sull’applicazione dell’art. 35-ter o.p., che rinvia all’art. 3 Cedu come interpretato dalla giurisprudenza della Corte Edu. Si è voluta condurre un'analisi idonea a cogliere i punti di arrivo e di ripartenza, valorizzando il costante lavoro compiuto dalla Corte costituzionale, sempre più coraggiosa nell’affermare la forza dei principi costituzionali e convenzionali anche in materia di esecuzione della pena.

Zugl.: Hamburg, Univ., Diss., 2006

Variationsmängder är en egenskap i barnriktat tal som karaktäriseras av successiva yttranden i vilka den vuxne talaren upprepar och omformulerar sitt budskap med en konstant intention. Syftet med studien var att undersöka variationsmängder över tid i tal riktat till barn i åldrarna 7-33 månader. Målet var att studera vilka typer av yttranden som dominerar variationsmängderna vid olika åldrar, samt vilka yttrandetyper som tenderade att förekomma tillsammans inom variationsmängderna. Vidare undersöktes intention och tempusförändringar hos verb i dessa variationsmängder. Ett skript skrevs för att kategorisera yttrandetyper med data från en korpus över barnriktat tal. Resultatet undersöktes sedan kvantitativt utifrån fyra åldersgrupper. Yttrandenas komplexitet inom variationsmängder visade sig stiga ju äldre barn det rörde sig om. Vidare sågs en skillnad i den vuxnes intention då barnen blev äldre, samt en minskning i användandet av interjektioner i kombination med ja/nej-frågor och komplexa satser ju äldre barnen blev. En tolkning av resultatet föreslogs vara att den vuxne själv tenderar att hålla i båda sidor av konversationen då de talar med yngre barn till skillnad från när de talar med äldre, mer verbala, barn som själva kan bidra med svaret. / Variation sets are a feature in child-directed speech characterized by successive utterances in which the adult speaker repeats and reorders their message with a constant intent. The aim of this study was to investigate variation sets over time in speech directed to children in the ages 7-33 months. The purpose was to study which types of utterances that dominates the variation sets at different ages, and which utterance-types that tend to co-occur within the variation sets. Furthermore intent was studied as well as change in verb tense in these variation sets. A script was written to categorize types of utterances with data from a corpus consisting of child directed speech. A quantitative research was performed on the results based on four different age groups. The complexity of the utterances within variation sets was shown to grow with the increasing age of the children. Furthermore a noticeable difference was observed in the intent of the adult speaker, correlating with the age of the child, and also a decrease in use of interjection combined with yes/no- questions and complex utterances the older the children were. A suggested interpretation of the result was that the adult tend to take both sides of the conversation when the children are young as opposed to when they speak to older, more verbal, children that can provide the answer themselves.

El punto de partida para este trabajo es la investigación de Thegel (2017), que demuestra que un grado menor de agentividad del sujeto y el uso de condicional son dos indicaciones de intersubjetividad. El presente estudio pretende investigar de modo cuantitativo la posibilidad de una correlación entre estas dos nociones, a saber, si se emplea el condicional cuando el sujeto muestra un grado menor de agentividad. El corpus utilizado consiste en extractos de Cartas a la Directora del periódico El País e incluso transcripciones de dos debates parlamentarios de sesiones plenarias, en total, 212 oraciones. Puesto que los resultados cuantitativos muestran que no parece residir una relación entre las dos variables, la distribución del tiempo gramatical se explica a través de un análisis cualitativo. Por una parte, se nota una tendencia de usar el presente indicativo en contextos descriptivos y cuando el evento exigido coincide con una responsabilidad o expectativa consideradas internas del agente; por otra, el uso del condicional se asocia con la alusión de la violación de una norma compartida, como ha señalado Thegel (2017). Finalmente, se pretende vincular los resultados con el modelo teórico de Narrog (2005) sobre la evolución semántica de los modales, y se concluye que el uso del presente indicativo en deber tiene características similares a la descripción de expresiones orientadas hacia el evento, mientras las oraciones con el condicional se consideran más orientadas hacia el acto de habla.

Swahili ist keineswegs eine besonders „exotische“ Sprache, aber dennoch fällt es schwer, eine gu-te moderne Grammatik des Standard-Swahili (Kiswahili sanifu) zu finden. Insbesondere die Inter-pretation der vorkommenden Tempora, Aspekte oder Modi des Verbs sind in den erhältlichen Grammatiken diskrepant bis widersprüchlich. Der Artikel versucht, einen systematischen Ansatz für eine strukturelle Matrix des TAM-Systems im Swahili herauszuarbeiten. Dabei beziehe ich mich auf die von Shankara Bhat in The Prominence of Tense, Aspect and Mood (1999) vorge-schlagene typologische Methode. Bhat legt dar, dass nicht jede Sprache jede Dimension von TAM gleich gewichtet, sondern dass jeweils eine davon vorherrscht. Eine Analyse von TAM in einer be-stimmten Sprache muss sich daher an der prominenten Dimension orientieren. Im Artikel wird herausgearbeitet, dass das Tempus die strukturierende Dimension im Swahili darstellt und dass im Gegensatz dazu der Aspekt nicht systematisch grammatikalisiert ist. Dabei war es nötig, die im Swahili vorkommenden TAM-Formen funktional zu interpretieren und zu benennen, da diese in der aktuellen Literatur teilweise sehr unterschiedlich analysiert werden.

Das Verhältnis von ₵ und C im mensuralen Notationssystem des 15. bis zum beginnenden 17. Jahrhundert ist nicht befriedigend geklärt. Einer riesigen Menge musikschriftlicher Quellen, die von einer halbierenden / verdoppelnden Relation beider Zeichen sprechen, stehen zeitgenössische musikalische Quellen gegenüber, in denen dies musikpraktisch nicht funktioniert; in der modernen Debatte und Auseinandersetzung mit diesen Zeichen steht dieser eindeutigen Aussage ein mittlerweile verbreitetes Verständnis gegenüber, das außerhalb simultaner Kontexte eine unbestimmte, geringe Beschleunigung als Bedeutung des Zeichens ₵ behauptet, abgeleitet aus wenigen zeitgenössischen Quellen. Die vorliegende Monographie hat sich zum Ziel gesetzt, mehr Klarheit in dieses unscharfe Bild zu bringen. Methodisch geht sie dabei den Weg traditionsgeschichtlicher Analysen möglichst aller verfügbaren musikschriftlichen Quellen, welche sie einerseits spezifisch auf die Frage nach dem Verhältnis der beiden genannten Mensurzeichen samt verwandter Zeichen und zugehöriger Phänomene untersucht, welche sie aber andererseits darüber hinaus immer auch als ganze im Blick hat. Die Beschränkung auf musikschriftliche Quellen ergibt sich rein quantitativ aufgrund der schieren Menge und sachlich aufgrund der genannten Diskrepanz zu musikalischen Quellen, die eine separate Untersuchung beider Quellentypen je für sich fordert. Dabei werden musikalische Quellen gleichwohl immer so weit berücksichtigt, insofern sie von den musikschriftlichen Quellen selbst geboten werden, direkt als Beispiele oder indirekt durch Verweise. Die musikschriftlichen Quellen werden aber nicht nur für sich untersucht, sondern im Rahmen ihrer Kontexte, insbesondere gegenseitiger Verbindungen und Abhängigkeiten oder in ihrer Originalität. Das macht die Reichweite und das Gewicht einzelner Darstellungen und Aussagen überhaupt erst taxierbar, legt Traditionslinien, Entwicklungen und Abbrüche von Ideen und Konzepten offen und deckt so ein Netzwerk der musikschriftlichen Darstellungen auf, durch das die Gegenstände der musikalischen Lehre auf verschiedene Weise und in teils wechselnder Gestalt diffundieren. Die Untersuchung zeigt, dass – was den musikschriftlichen Diskurs angeht – die Behauptung einer verdoppelnden / halbierenden Bedeutung von ₵ von äußerst wenigen Ausnahmen abgesehen einerseits eindeutig ist, andererseits aber auf bestimmte Kontexte beschränkt. Außerhalb dieser Kontexte ist ₵ als eine Variante des Grundzeichens C mit derselben mensuralen Bedeutung ohne zusätzlichen Informationsgehalt anzusehen. / The ratio of ₵ and C in mensural notation of the 15th to the beginning of the 17th century has not yet been satisfactorily clarified. A plethora of theoretical sources which claim a meaning in the sense of halving / doubling in the ratio between these two signs stands against contemporary musical sources in which this does not work; in the modern debate about these signs, this clear meaning opposes a meanwhile common understanding of ₵ – except simultaneous relationships – as a sign for an undefined moderate acceleration which is based on very few contemporary sources. The present monograph aims to bring more clarity in this blurred picture. The methodological approach is “traditionsgeschichtlich”, which means that all available theoretical sources as far as possible are investigated specifically concerning the ratio of the two mentioned signs, related signs and phenomena, but that beyond this they also are regarded as a whole. The limitation to theoretical sources is due to the huge amount of them and, as regards content, due to the discrepancy to musical sources mentioned above, which demands a separate investigation. In doing so, musical sources are considered nevertheless, insofar they are provided by the theoretical sources themselves, directly as examples or indirectly by reference. In addition, the theoretical sources are not investigated just as such but in their contexts, especially concerning interconnections, dependencies, or their originality. Only on that grounds the weight and scope of single statements and views can be assessed, traces of transmission and tradition, evolutions and abortions of ideas and concepts can be detected. Thus, a network of theoretical sources can be retraced in which the issues of musical theory and teaching move in different manner and in partly different shape. The investigation shows that – concerning the discourse of theoretical sources – the assertion of a halving / doubling meaning of ₵ is, with very few exceptions, unambiguous but limited to certain contexts. Outside these contexts, ₵ is to be regarded as a variant of the sign C with the same mensural meaning and without any further information.

Temporal constructions in Afrikaans are ambiguous with respect to aspectual meaning. The past tense construction with het ge-, for instance, can be interpreted as progressive, perfective or anterior. In the same vein, the unmarked present tense construction can be interpreted as a construction with a progressive or a perfective meaning. This aspectual ambiguity of the Afrikaans verbal system has a significant effect on the way in which Afrikaans grammar is described or understood. The observation by native speakers, linguists, literary specialists and writers that the temporal constructions in Afrikaans are vague or ambiguous with regard to aspectual meaning has led to certain views about the expression of tense in the language. In Afrikaans literature, for example, there is a tradition to write prose primarily in the present tense, because of the perception that the past tense is not adequate to convey particular semantic nuances. Furthermore, certain speakers of Afrikaans and linguists believe that Afrikaans grammar has been simplified and just does not have aspect. However, Afrikaans possesses alternative strategies to specify aspectual meaning. The five prototypical ways of expressing aspectual meaning in Afrikaans are i) lexical constructions (such as adverbs and conjunctions); ii) constructions with affixes, iii) reduplication constructions; iv) passive constructions; and v) periphrastic constructions. Aspectual meaning in Afrikaans is an almost entirely unexplored research field. In my opinion, the literature on the expressions of aspectual meaning in Afrikaans contains two shortcomings. First, Afrikaans aspect needs to be described theoretically. Second, more research is needed concerning the specific ways in which aspectual meaning is expressed in Afrikaans. The scope of this entire research field is too large for a single study. For that reason, the present study aims to reveal the way in which periphrastic constructions are used to convey progressive meaning. As far as temporal meaning is concerned, it is possible to make a distinction between tempus meaning, which stands for deictic temporal meanings (i.e. past, present and future tense), and aspectual meaning, which stands for non-deictic temporal meanings such as duration, point of view and the internal structure of the situation. One can also distinguish between lexical and grammatical aspect. Lexical aspect has to do with the conceptual properties of a situation or, in other words, with the question whether it is static or dynamic, telic or atelic and durative. There are five situation types: states, activities, achievements, accomplishments and semelfactives. Grammatical aspect concerns the point of view from which the situation is perceived. One can make a distinction between perfective and imperfective grammatical aspect. The latter can be subdivided into imperfectives conveying habitual meaning and imperfectives conveying progressive meaning. Grammaticalisation theory is useful and a relevant tool to provide answers to the afore-mentioned research questions. First, it offers insight into the manner in which the ambiguous tempus constructions of Afrikaans came into being. Second, it can be used to show how the alternative aspectual constructions have developed and how they are currently employed in the language. For the purpose of this study, grammaticalisation is regarded as language change in which a construction loses its lexical meaning and comes to express grammatical meaning. Grammatical constructions can be used in more contexts than their lexical counterparts, as grammaticalised uses have been generalized contextually. Grammatical constructions lose the morphosyntactic properties typical of their lexical counterparts and assume grammatical properties. Grammaticalisation is a typological phenomenon and the lexical origin of a grammatical construction is often the same in different languages. Grammaticalizing constructions exhibit an increase in frequency. Afrikaans and Dutch are closely related languages and possess cognate periphrastic progressive constructions, viz. i) the aan het- / aan die- ii) VPOS te / VPOS en-; en iii) bezig- / besig- progressive constructions. To examine the use of periphrastic progressive constructions in Afrikaans from a grammaticalisation perspective, I compare the results of a study of these constructions in an Afrikaans corpus to those of previous studies of the periphrastic progressive constructions in Dutch. The respective constructions are compared on the basis of four criteria, viz. i) frequency; ii) verb collocations; iii) transitivity; and iv) combinatorial possibilities with other aspectual periphrastic constructions. The lexical origins of the various constructions are also considered. The comparison of the constructions on the basis of the afore-mentioned criteria makes it possible to demonstrate how the periphrastic progressive constructions in Afrikaans came into being and how they have developed into grammatical constructions conveying aspectual meaning and in which way the different Afrikaans periphrastic constructions express progressive meaning. / PhD (Afrikaans and Dutch), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Temporal constructions in Afrikaans are ambiguous with respect to aspectual meaning. The past tense construction with het ge-, for instance, can be interpreted as progressive, perfective or anterior. In the same vein, the unmarked present tense construction can be interpreted as a construction with a progressive or a perfective meaning. This aspectual ambiguity of the Afrikaans verbal system has a significant effect on the way in which Afrikaans grammar is described or understood. The observation by native speakers, linguists, literary specialists and writers that the temporal constructions in Afrikaans are vague or ambiguous with regard to aspectual meaning has led to certain views about the expression of tense in the language. In Afrikaans literature, for example, there is a tradition to write prose primarily in the present tense, because of the perception that the past tense is not adequate to convey particular semantic nuances. Furthermore, certain speakers of Afrikaans and linguists believe that Afrikaans grammar has been simplified and just does not have aspect. However, Afrikaans possesses alternative strategies to specify aspectual meaning. The five prototypical ways of expressing aspectual meaning in Afrikaans are i) lexical constructions (such as adverbs and conjunctions); ii) constructions with affixes, iii) reduplication constructions; iv) passive constructions; and v) periphrastic constructions. Aspectual meaning in Afrikaans is an almost entirely unexplored research field. In my opinion, the literature on the expressions of aspectual meaning in Afrikaans contains two shortcomings. First, Afrikaans aspect needs to be described theoretically. Second, more research is needed concerning the specific ways in which aspectual meaning is expressed in Afrikaans. The scope of this entire research field is too large for a single study. For that reason, the present study aims to reveal the way in which periphrastic constructions are used to convey progressive meaning. As far as temporal meaning is concerned, it is possible to make a distinction between tempus meaning, which stands for deictic temporal meanings (i.e. past, present and future tense), and aspectual meaning, which stands for non-deictic temporal meanings such as duration, point of view and the internal structure of the situation. One can also distinguish between lexical and grammatical aspect. Lexical aspect has to do with the conceptual properties of a situation or, in other words, with the question whether it is static or dynamic, telic or atelic and durative. There are five situation types: states, activities, achievements, accomplishments and semelfactives. Grammatical aspect concerns the point of view from which the situation is perceived. One can make a distinction between perfective and imperfective grammatical aspect. The latter can be subdivided into imperfectives conveying habitual meaning and imperfectives conveying progressive meaning. Grammaticalisation theory is useful and a relevant tool to provide answers to the afore-mentioned research questions. First, it offers insight into the manner in which the ambiguous tempus constructions of Afrikaans came into being. Second, it can be used to show how the alternative aspectual constructions have developed and how they are currently employed in the language. For the purpose of this study, grammaticalisation is regarded as language change in which a construction loses its lexical meaning and comes to express grammatical meaning. Grammatical constructions can be used in more contexts than their lexical counterparts, as grammaticalised uses have been generalized contextually. Grammatical constructions lose the morphosyntactic properties typical of their lexical counterparts and assume grammatical properties. Grammaticalisation is a typological phenomenon and the lexical origin of a grammatical construction is often the same in different languages. Grammaticalizing constructions exhibit an increase in frequency. Afrikaans and Dutch are closely related languages and possess cognate periphrastic progressive constructions, viz. i) the aan het- / aan die- ii) VPOS te / VPOS en-; en iii) bezig- / besig- progressive constructions. To examine the use of periphrastic progressive constructions in Afrikaans from a grammaticalisation perspective, I compare the results of a study of these constructions in an Afrikaans corpus to those of previous studies of the periphrastic progressive constructions in Dutch. The respective constructions are compared on the basis of four criteria, viz. i) frequency; ii) verb collocations; iii) transitivity; and iv) combinatorial possibilities with other aspectual periphrastic constructions. The lexical origins of the various constructions are also considered. The comparison of the constructions on the basis of the afore-mentioned criteria makes it possible to demonstrate how the periphrastic progressive constructions in Afrikaans came into being and how they have developed into grammatical constructions conveying aspectual meaning and in which way the different Afrikaans periphrastic constructions express progressive meaning. / PhD (Afrikaans and Dutch), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012