<p>The question this essay sets out to answer is what role God plays in Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan, in the book “Of a Christian Common-wealth”, in relationship to humans as moral beings. The question is relevant as the religious aspects of Hobbes’s thinking cannot be ignored, although Hobbes most likely had rather secular and sceptical philosophical views. In order to answer the research question Leviathan’s “Of a Christian Common-wealth” will be compared and contrasted with two contextual works: the canonical theological document of the Anglican Church, the Thirty-Nine Articles (1571), and Presbyterian-Anglican document the Westminster Confession (1648). Also, recent scholarly works on Hobbes and more general reference works will be employed and discussed. Hobbes’s views provide a seemingly unsolvable paradox. On the one hand, God is either portrayed, or becomes by consequence of his sceptical and secular state thinking, a distant God in relationship to moral humans in “Of a Christian Common-wealth”. Also, the freedom humans seem to have in making their own moral decisions, whether based on natural and divine, or positive laws, appears to obscure God’s almightiness. On the other hand, when placing Hobbes in context, Hobbes appears to have espoused Calvinist views, with beliefs in predestination and that God is the cause of everything. Rather paradoxically it not unlikely that Hobbes espoused both the views that appear to obscure the role of God, and his more Calvinistic views.</p>

The question this essay sets out to answer is what role God plays in Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan, in the book “Of a Christian Common-wealth”, in relationship to humans as moral beings. The question is relevant as the religious aspects of Hobbes’s thinking cannot be ignored, although Hobbes most likely had rather secular and sceptical philosophical views. In order to answer the research question Leviathan’s “Of a Christian Common-wealth” will be compared and contrasted with two contextual works: the canonical theological document of the Anglican Church, the Thirty-Nine Articles (1571), and Presbyterian-Anglican document the Westminster Confession (1648). Also, recent scholarly works on Hobbes and more general reference works will be employed and discussed. Hobbes’s views provide a seemingly unsolvable paradox. On the one hand, God is either portrayed, or becomes by consequence of his sceptical and secular state thinking, a distant God in relationship to moral humans in “Of a Christian Common-wealth”. Also, the freedom humans seem to have in making their own moral decisions, whether based on natural and divine, or positive laws, appears to obscure God’s almightiness. On the other hand, when placing Hobbes in context, Hobbes appears to have espoused Calvinist views, with beliefs in predestination and that God is the cause of everything. Rather paradoxically it not unlikely that Hobbes espoused both the views that appear to obscure the role of God, and his more Calvinistic views.

Robert Kane asserts that some decisions and actions which are made by an agent are undetermined. These undetermined decisions are what allow an agent to have free will and ultimate responsibility for her decisions and actions. Kane appeals to probabilistic causation in order to argue that these undetermined decisions are not arbitrary or random. I argue that Woodward’s interventionist approach to causation can be used by Kane to make his theory of free will more plausible by illustrating how the agent causes her decision. Woodward’s account can link an agent’s reasons with her decision, activity in her self-network with her decision, and can render undetermined decisions plural rational, plural voluntary, and plural voluntarily controlled.

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The aim of this study is to examine the relation between Nietzsche&rsquo / s perspectivism and his doctrine of the will to power and to show that perspectivism is almost a direct and natural consequence of the doctrine of the will to power. Without exploring the doctrine, it is not possible to understand what Nietzsche&rsquo / s perspectivism is and what he trying to do by proposing it as an alternative to traditional epistemology. To this aim, firstly, Nietzsche&rsquo / s doctrine of the will to power is explained in detail. Next, in order to provide a deeper understanding of the doctrine, its relation with Darwinism and the claims which say that it is a metaphysical principle are analyzed. Afterwards, Nietzsche&rsquo / s construction of the world as becoming out of will to power is investigated. Nietzsche&rsquo / s conception of interpretation as power struggle and its role in perspectivism explained. Then, how Nietzsche&rsquo / s construction of the world as becoming and his concept of interpretation as power struggle emerge as perspectivism is explained. After that, in order to present the differences between Nietzsche&rsquo / s perspectivism and traditional understanding of epistemology, Nietzsche&rsquo / s critiques of some of the fundamental assumptions of traditional epistemology, i.e., causality, logic, and subject-object and apparent-real world distinctions, are investigated. Finally, Nietzsche&rsquo / s understanding of truth based on his perspectivism is inquired. Its relation with correspondence, pragmatic and coherence theories of truth is explored to show that Nietzsche&rsquo / s understanding of truth could not be comprehended through these theories. Consequently, it is claimed that the tendency to attribute a truth theory to Nietzsche&rsquo / s perspectivism, which is prevalent in the current Nietzsche studies, stems from commentator&rsquo / s, consciously or unconsciously, ignoring of the relation between his perspectivism and his doctrine of the will to power.

本論文以人類學的田野調查方式，企圖對臺灣當代新興宗教現象會靈山，做一個全面性的田野與歷史探查。以民族誌書寫的方式，結合臺灣歷史的脈絡，勾勒出會靈山在臺灣當代民間宗教信仰中的重要位置，及其全面性之輪廓。以說明，會靈山是臺灣民間宗教信仰，第一次以通靈的方式，來呈現個人對愛的心理區位與精神動力之宗教現象，且打破傳統漢人男性為主的民間宗教信仰結構，所逐漸醞釀崛起的一個新興宗教之靈性運動。文中輔以三位女靈乩為研究個案對象，並以精神分析的取向進行分析—通靈者在靈性的追求上之內在心理機制。並從中發現精神分析的侷限性，與西方理論對於東方宗教的文化內涵，有其認知上的匱乏。因此筆者在此情況之下，援引東方開悟者大師--奧修(Osho)對諸多宗教核心的內在闡述，來作為田野現象與個案分析之依據，補足西方心理學或精神分析對東方宗教研究中的未盡之處。 / In this paper, anthropological fieldwork manner, attempting to contemporary new religious phenomenon in Taiwan Will-Lingshan(會靈山), do a comprehensive history of fields and exploration. Writing Ethnography way to combining Taiwan's historical context, and sketched out an important position Will-Lingshan in Contemporary Folk religion in Taiwan, and comprehensiveness of the outline. In explanation, it Will- Lingshan Taiwan folk religion, the first time psychic way to present personal religious phenomenon of love psychological and spiritual power of the location, and break the traditional male-dominated Han Chinese folk religion structure, which gradually brewing rise of a new religious spirituality movement. Text supplemented by three female spirit mediums case study of object orientation and psychoanalysis were analyzed - psychic in the pursuit of spiritual inner psychological mechanism. And discover the limitations of psychoanalysis, and Western theories of cultural connotation of Eastern religions, there is lack of awareness on their. Oriental religious studies Osho internal elaboration of many religious core, as a basis of case studies and field phenomenon, complement Western psychology or psychoanalysis - so I Under such circumstances, citing the East enlightened Masters The deficiencies of the Department.

Am 1. September 2009 wurde das 3. Gesetz zur Änderung des Betreuungsrechts erlassen. Seitdem ist die Einhaltung von Patientenverfügungen rechtlich bindend. Ärztliche Beratung zur Patientenverfügung wird empfohlen, ist aber keine Gültigkeitsvoraussetzung. Es wurde eine Studie durchgeführt, in der Ärztinnen und Ärzte dazu befragt wurden, in welchem Ausmaß zur Patientenverfügung beraten wird, wie die Qualität der Beratung beurteilt wird, welchen Stellenwert ärztliche Beratung zur Patientenverfügung hat und wie die Finanzierung ärztlicher Beratung beurteilt wird. Es wurde deutlich, dass die Patientenverfügung als Instrument durchaus anerkannt ist. Die befragten Ärztinnen und Ärzte schätzen ihre Beratungskompetenz hoch ein. Trotzdem wird Fortbildung gewünscht. Offizielle Empfehlungen und Standards zur ärztlichen Beratung wären sehr sinnvoll. Die Frage der Finanzierung sollte dringend abschließend geklärt werden. Eine zumindest anteilige Übernahme der Beratungskosten durch die Solidargemeinschaft wird vom Großteil der Befragten gefordert. In diesem Rahmen wäre auch eine eigene Abrechnungsziffer für Beratungsgespräche sinnvoll.

This thesis examines the moral philosophical commitments that Kant, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche advance in their respective oppositions to utilitarianism. Though not always under that title, all three reject the claim that promoting happiness is the ultimate end that we pursue, or ought to pursue, through moral principles and values. Kant, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche see this rejection reflected in human nature itself. Each develops a distinctive conception of 'higher self,' or of higher purposes already belonging, in some sense, to each of us, in accordance with which we ought to shape our character. Self-formation, not the mere pursuit of happiness (whether our own or that of others), is thus our true moral project. I focus on each philosopher's account of agency and motivation as the locus in which this view of morality is developed, highlighting the differences that emerge from the details of their respective accounts. This thesis shows that a tight relation between cognition and motive feeling is central, though in different ways, for Kant, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, to the motivational structure of those actions through which we develop moral character. According to Kant, recognition of being bound by the moral law (our 'practical cognition' of freedom) is indissolubly linked to the feeling of respect for it, which in turn is explicable only through such recognition. For Schopenhauer, the 'intuitive cognition' that our existence as distinct individuals is illusory is the feeling of compassion. Nietzsche radically expands this point, arguing that, in every act of will, the motive feeling and guiding cognition are uniquely linked. Only a superficial grasp of human motivation supports the idea that pleasure and pain are the common motive forces underlying all our actions. The inner conflict in human nature, the creative tension in self-formation, is not, for Nietzsche, that between a uniquely moral form of motivation and a 'lower' instrumental pursuit of pleasure. Rather, this inner tension, expressed most strikingly and distressingly in extreme ascetic and guilt-ridden strands of Christian morality, is the product of a complex historical conflict between two different modes of behavioural selection – our evolutionary development and the processes of socialization.

This thesis is concerned with two central questions. The first is theoretical and asks, "Can a direct appeal be made to the foundational principles of liberalism to support collective rights?" The second question is practical and asks: "Would such a defense serve the interests of contemporary Canadian Aboriginal claims to special constitutionally recognized collective rights known as the Aboriginal Right?" I utilize Will Kymlicka's defense of minority rights as the theoretical framework in assessing this first question and in assessing the latter, I refer to various reported Aboriginal conceptions of the so-called Aboriginal Right which have been formalized by Aboriginal people themselves through constitutional addresses, Royal Commission hearings, discussion papers and legal claims. Part I of the thesis involves an enquiry into the nature of the revisions that Kymlicka proposes to make to liberal theory, and asks whether, in making such changes, he is able to retain identification with the so-called "modern" liberals, with whom Kymlicka identifies himself, and consistently defend the kind of group minority rights of the sort actually being claimed in Canadian society today. I conclude that Kymlicka argument fails in two respects: it fails to do the work required of it by modern liberals and it ultimately fails to do the work required by the standards of Kymlicka own theory. In Part II, I argue that even if it were theoretically possible to protect the good of culture in the way that Kymlicka hopes, such a defense of collective rights fails in the most important respect: that is, it cannot do the work required of it by the Aboriginal people for whom it was designed.

Magistro baigiamajame darbe nagrinėjama žodžio (išraiškos) laisvės teisės ribų teisinio reglamentavimo Lietuvoje problema. Aptarti žodžio (išraiškos) laisvės teisės istorinės ištakos, raidos etapai, žodžio (išraiškos) laisvės teisės vieta žmogaus teisių sistemoje. Pabrėžiama, jog žodžio laisvė nėra absoliuti, o norint apsaugoti svarbesnius visuomenės interesus arba atskirų asmenų teises nustatomos tam tikros žodžio laisvės ribos. Taip pat prieita nuomonės, jog žodžio laisvės teisė ir informacijos laisvės teisė yra dvi skirtingos fundamentinės žmogaus teisės – informacijos gavimo teisė yra socialinė kategorija, tuo tarpu žodžio laisvė, kaip žmogaus saviraiškos būdas, yra greičiau dvasinė kategorija. Analizuojant žodžio (išraiškos) laisvės ribojimo pagrindus, aptarta teisės ir moralės santykio problema. Aptariant minėtą problemą, rėmėmės I.Kanto žmogaus valios autonomija. Paaiškėjo, jog teisėta veikla išplaukia ne iš išorinio reglamentavimo, o iš vidinio asmens apsisprendimo veikti moraliai, iš pagarbos proto principams. Moralės dėsnis “įrašytas” žmogaus dvasioje ir žmogus yra laisvas, jei jis veikia vadovaudamasis moralės įstatymu. Filosofiniu požiūriu analizuota žodžio (išraiškos) laisvės teisės struktūra. Žodžio (išraiškos) laisvės teisę lemia tiesos ir gėrio filosofinės kategorijos. Žodžio (išraiškos) laisvė sietina su tiesos skelbimu gera valia ir gėrio siekimu. Tiesa sudaro intelektualinį žodžio (išraiškos) laisvės naudojimo aspektą, o gėris valinį aspektą. Darbe... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / In this Master’s paper the legal regulation issue of free speech limits in Lithuania is analyzed. Historical fountainhead of free speech, its process and position in the system of human rights are discussed. It is emphasized that the freedom of speech is not absolute, and on purpose to protect the public interest that are more important or the rights of each individual person some particular limits of free speech are set down. It has also been considered that freedom of speech and freedom of information are two different kinds of fundamental human rights. The freedom of information is a social category whereas the freedom of speech that is like a way of a person’s self-expression is rather a moral category. While analyzing the basis of free speech limits the problem of relation between law and morality has been discussed appealing to I. Kant autonomy of human will. It appeared that good will is one that acts from duty in accordance with the universal moral law that the autonomous human being freely gives itself. This law obliges one to treat humanity — understood as rational agency, and represented through oneself as well as others — as an end in itself rather than as means. The structure of free speech has been analysed philosophically. It occurred that freedom of speech is conditioned by the philosophical categories of the truth and the good. The free speech is related to proclamation of the truth, good will and endeavor to seek the good. The truth makes an intellectual... [to full text]