Tesis para optar al Grado de Magíster en Urbanismo

Tesis para optar al Grado de Magíster en Urbanismo

Cette thèse interroge la manière dont le développement durable est saisi par les concepteurs en agence d’architecture, d’urbanisme et de paysage. Elle analyse ce que les tentatives d’appropriation disent du fonctionnement de telles organisations, de leur place dans le processus de projet, et de la diversité des valeurs qui peuvent s’y développer. Basé sur l’observation in situ d’une agence parisienne d’une vingtaine de personnes entre 2010 et 2013, notre travail définit trois axes de recherche autour : des approches, contenus et statuts accordés au développement durable par les concepteurs ; des systèmes de valeurs portés par les concepteurs et leur évolution à l’épreuve du développement durable ; des compétences et du rôle des concepteurs dans la fabrique urbaine au prisme du développement durable. La démonstration met en lumière la diversité des approches et statuts accordés à celui-ci. Les compétences apparaissent comme un enjeu d’appropriation cognitive et opérationnelle, mais aussi de concurrence interprofessionnelle. En outre, les concepteurs s’appuient sur des systèmes de normes et de valeurs répondant aux logiques parfois contradictoires des mondes marchand, industriel, civique, de l’opinion, et de l’inspiration (Boltanski, Thévenot, 1991). Les tentatives d’appropriation du développement durable renforcent plus qu’elles ne transforment les tensions entre ces logiques. Cette thèse vise à enrichir la connaissance des mécanismes d’appropriation du développement durable par les acteurs de l’aménagement et de l’urbanisme. Elle participe à la compréhension des modes de fonctionnement d’un acteur particulier : le concepteur appréhendé dans le collectif de l’agence. / This thesis examines the ways in which designers in architecture, urbanism and landscaping agencies take sustainable development into account in their professional practices. It looks at what their attempts to appropriate sustainable development reveal about the operations of such organizations, the place of the latter in the project process, and the diverse positions and values that can develop as a result. Based on the in situ observation of a Parisian agency of about twenty designers between 2010 and 2013, our work has led to the definition of three axes of research : the approaches, contents and statuses that the designers attribute to sustainable development ; the designers’ value systems and how these evolve when they are faced with sustainable development ; the designers’ skills and roles in creating sustainable cities. The findings highlight that there is diversity in the designers’ approaches and priorities with regard to sustainable development. Skills appear to play a role in cognitive and operational appropriation, but also in the competition between professions. Furthermore, designers base their practices on norms and values that stem from the sometimes conflicting logics of the market, industrial, civic, fame and inspired worlds (Boltanski, Thévenot, 1991). The designers’ attempts to appropriate sustainable development reinforce rather than transform the tensions between these logics. This thesis aims to increase the knowledge about the mechanisms at play when urban design stakeholders adopt sustainable development. It contributes to a better understanding of the modes of operation of designers, observed in the environment of their agency.

Notre travail montre l’urbanisme de la ville de Zadar en Dalmatie, soit le développement de ses contenus urbains de ses débuts à l’Antiquité jusqu’à l’an 1409. Notre analyse urbanistique repose avant tout sur les monuments et autres vestiges matériels. Les sources historiques pertinentes furent bien évidemment prises en compte. Nous avons présenté la construction architecturale au cours de quatre périodes : Antiquité, Antiquité tardive, Haut Moyen Âge et Moyen Âge central et tardif. Pour chaque période, nous avons présenté les constructions de Zadar en quatre catégories distinctes d’après leur type d’architecture : fortifications, architecture profane publique, architecture profane privée et architecture sacrée. Les vestiges matériels liés à l’infrastructure de la ville furent également présentés (chaussées, canaux d’évacuation, etc.) Le développement de Zadar, à savoir la transformation de son urbanisme, fut analysé au travers de plusieurs époques en lien étroit avec la périodisation des événements historiques survenus sur la côte orientale de l’Adriatique. La période protohistorique fut également prise en compte. Notre analyse montre que la période antique définit le réseau orthogonal de voies de la cité. La construction intensive du Moyen Âge donna à la ville une physionomie urbaine qui conserva sur presque toute la surface de la cité les éléments principaux de l’urbanisme antique / This dissertation presents an analysis of the urbanism of the city of Zadar in Dalmatia, the development of the city and its urban contents from its beginnings in Antiquity until 1409. The urban analysis is based primarily upon the various surviving monuments and remnants. Relevant historical sources have also been taken into account. The different elements have been classified and presented according to four historical periods: Antiquity, Late Antiquity, Early Middle Ages, High and Late Middle Ages. Within each period, Zadar's buildings are categorised according to four typologies: Fortifications, Public Secular Structures, Private Secular Structures and Sacred Buildings. The remains of the city's infrastructure (sidewalks, drainage channels, etc.) have also been presented. The development of the city of Zadar, through its urban transformation, has been analysed through the outlined periods while keeping the usual periodization of general historic events on the eastern Adriatic coast. The protohistoric period has also been considered. Analysis has also revealed that the regular orthogonal grid of the city was defined in Antiquity, and that despite intensive construction during the medieval period when the city developed its urban physiognomy, nearly all the principle characteristics of the city established during Antiquity have been preserved.

Le PLU fixe, dans le respect de la hiérarchie des normes, les règles d’utilisation du sol sur son territoire. Cette hiérarchie est constituée par un ensemble de normes et principes dont le nombre n’a cessé de s’alourdir depuis la décentralisation. Bien que de nature différente, ces normes s’imposent toutes, à quelques exceptions près, de la même façon au PLU. Ce dernier doit être compatible avec leurs dispositions. Cet agencement, apparemment cohérent, dissimule de nombreuses imperfections. Les normes supérieures non moins générales, peuvent aussi s’exprimer dans des termes précis, mixant élasticité et rigidité, précision et imprécision, certitude et incertitude,… Les rapports normatifs, du fait de leur imprécision, transmettent non seulement la validité déterminée par l’ordre supérieur mais aussi les incertitudes affectant ce dernier. Ils n’excluent pas la possibilité d’intensification qui pourrait aboutir à la conformité ni celle d’un affaiblissement aboutissant à une simple prise en compte. Il revient alors au PLU de tempérer ces excès de rigueur ou de mollesse et d’en ressortir des règles intellectuellement accessibles, relativement stables et juridiquement sécurisées. Mais, l'exercice est très délicat et préoccupe les communes qui ne peuvent adopter une interprétation totalement conforme à l’esprit de la norme supérieure sans échapper à la reproduction, au niveau du PLU, de l’ambiguïté qui caractérise cette norme. Il en résulte un PLU difficilement déchiffrable et juridiquement vulnérable puisque ses destinataires, exposés à la difficulté de donner un sens précis à ses règles et de déterminer avec précision celles applicables à un moment donné, ne manquent pas de le contester. Dans ce contexte, le juge s’est vu accordé de nouveaux pouvoirs en vue de tempérer l’impact du contentieux sur la sécurité juridique du PLU. Ainsi, à un encadrement drastique des conditions de recevabilité des recours contre le PLU s’ajoutent des alternatives à son annulation pure et simple. / The Local Urbanism Plan (LUP) set, within the respect of the norms hierarchy, the using rules of the soil on his territory. This hierarchy is constituted by a number of norms and principles which kept growing more and more since it was decentralized. Even though they’re different, these norms are all applicable in the same way to the LUP, with some exceptions. The LUP has to be compatible with their dispositions. This layout apparently coherent hides a high amount of imperfections. Higher norms, but not less generals, can as well be expressed in precise terms, mixing elasticity and rigidity, precision and imprecision, certitude and incertitude. Since nominative reports are not precise, they share in the first place the validity determined by the higher order, but also the incertitude affecting it. They don’t exclude the possibility it will intensify, meaning it could lead to the conformity, and neither have they excluded the weakening leading to a simple take into account. Then the LUP has to deal with these excess of rigor or weakness and to take into account the intellectuals, accessible, relatively stables, and legally secured rules. But this exercise is very tricky and a lot of towns are concerned since they cannot adopt an interpretation totally conform to the spirit of the superior norm without escaping the reproduction of the ambiguity which characterize this norm at the LUP level. As a result, LUPs become hardly decipherable and legally vulnerable since their recipients, which have hard times to give a precise meaning to this rules and characterize with precision which are applicable to a given time, are always ready to contest it. In this context, the judge received new capabilities in order to temper the litigation impact about the LUP legal security. Thus, alternatives to its cancelling are added to the drastic monitoring of the admissibility conditions of the recourse against the LUP.

L’objectif de cette thèse est de permettre une meilleure évaluation du bioclimatisme d’un projet d’aménagement urbain dès les premières étapes de la conception: de sa capacité à capter la lumière naturelle à l’intérieur des bâtiments, de l’efficacité énergétique de ces derniers et du confort thermique des espaces extérieurs. Une première esquisse de la géométrie extérieure d’un projet est proposée dès la phase concours, dans le plan masse. A ce stade, les bâtiments sont généralement assimilés à des prismes droits, avec éventuellement des toitures inclinées. Les détails architecturaux tels que la forme et la position des fenêtres, le cloisonnement intérieur ou la composition des parois ne sont pas définis, et il est donc impossible de modéliser l’éclairage naturel à l’intérieur des locaux ou encore le comportement thermique des enveloppes dans le plan masse. Nous montrons qu’il est toutefois possible d’identifier dès cette étape les sources de rayonnement extérieures les plus favorables au bioclimatisme des bâtiments. Nous introduisons notamment les notions de luminances utiles et suffisantes, qui traduisent la part d’une année pour laquelle une source de lumière permet un éclairement adapté à l’intérieur des locaux, et de températures radiantes, qui traduisent l’impact des sources de rayonnement de grandes et courtes longueurs d’ondes sur le réchauffement des surfaces et le confort thermique extérieur. Nous analysons leur distribution sur la voûte céleste et mettons en évidence sa variabilité sous différents climats. L’objectif final de ce travail est de proposer un outil de modélisation à même de guider les aménageurs dans leur recherche de formes urbaines bioclimatiques, dès le plan masse. / The main objective of this work is to evaluate the bioclimatism of an urban project at its early stages: its capacity to harness daylight, the energy efficiency of the projected building and the thermal comfort of the outdoor environment. A first proposal for the exterior geometry is made in the mass plan. At this stage, buildings are commonly represented as mass blocks. Architectural details, such as windows shapes, interior coatings or wall composition are not defined, and daylighting inside the buildings or thermal behavior of their envelope are impossible to model. Nevertheless, we show that it is possible to evaluate as soon as in the mass plan the impact of the exterior radiative sources on the bioclimatism of the project. The concepts of sufficient and useful luminances and radiant temperatures are introduced. The first two criteria traduce the percentage of the year in which an outside luminous source induces a convenient illuminance inside the buildings; the third one traduces the impact of an outside radiative source on the heating and cooling of the outside surfaces and the outdoor thermal comfort. We analyze their distribution on the sky vault and highlight its variability under different climates. The final objective of this thesis is to propose a software likely to lead the urban planners in their search of bioclimatic urban forms: ensuring daylight access inside the buildings, energy efficiency and outdoor thermal comfort.

Notre société entretient une relation complexe avec la nuit, espace-temps souvent hors des cadences diurnes qui favorise la réflexion, l’imaginaire, la création, l’écoute et le rapprochement de l’autre, tout en révélant la ségrégation, la peur, et donc la restriction. Par cette recherche, nous mettons en regard de l’éclairage urbain – véritable projet lumière porteur d’une symbolique forte – les coûts socioculturels, écologiques et sanitaires engendrés par la lumière artificielle. L’éclairage urbain génère un entrelacs géographique d’empreintes lumineuses d’échelles différenciées, que nous approchons par différentes modélisations, sans pour autant nous en interdire l’analyse sensible. Nous explicitons, à différentes échelles, les jeux d’acteurs institutionnels et les contraintes entourant la gouvernance de l’éclairage public en France, et soulignons la multiplication des possibilités offertes pour sa gestion locale. Une caractérisation des différents impacts de la lumière artificielle nocturne à l’aide d’outils conceptuels de l’économie de l’environnement permet de définir comme réelles pollutions les dégradations écologiques et sanitaires, et comme nuisance la diminution – voire la perte – de l’accessibilité au ciel étoilé. Nous montrons comment le bien environnemental « ciel étoilé » a été saisi par les astronomes pour porter un projet positif intégrant désormais l’environnement nocturne dans son ensemble : « Sauver la nuit ». Des oppositions à ce projet ont jalonné son histoire, mais les nécessaires économies d’énergie et les contraintes budgets des collectivités territoriales amènent désormais les acteurs locaux à reconsidérer avec plus d’intérêt les différentes propositions faites par les associations de « protection du ciel et de l’environnement nocturnes ». Mais la difficile efficience des mécanismes de marchandage coasiens nous amène à soutenir que la protection de ces biens publics purs,non appropriables et non marchandables, doit être prise en charge par la puissance publique. / Our society maintains a complex relation with night, space-time often outside the diurnal cadences which facilitates the reflection, the imagination, the creation, the listening and the link with the other one, while revealing the segregation, the fear, and thus the restriction. By this research, we put compared to the urban lighting – real light project carrier of a strong symbolism – the socio-cultural, ecological and sanitary costs engendered by the artificial light. The urban lighting generates a geographical interlacing of bright imprints of differentiated scales, which we approach by various modellings, without forbidding us the sensitive analysis. We clarify, at various scales, the games of institutional actors and the constraints surrounding the governance of the street lighting in France, and we underline the reproduction of the possibilities offered for its local management. A characterization of the various impacts of the nocturnal artificial light by means of abstract tools of the economy of the environment allows to define as real pollutions the ecological and sanitary damages, and as nuisance the decrease – even the loss – of the accessibility to the starry sky. We show how the environmental good "starry sky" was seized by the astronomers to carry a positive project integrating henceforth the nocturnal environment in general: "Save the night". Oppositions to this project marked out its history, but the necessary energy savings and the budgets of territorial communities bring henceforth the local actors to reconsider with more interest the various propositions made by the associations of "protection of the nocturnal sky and environment". But the difficult efficiency of the mechanisms of coasian bargaining brings us to defend that the protection of these pure public goods, not unbargainable, must be taken care by the public authorities.

Esta pesquisa analisa os processos de urbanismo bottom-up a partir do contexto social em que emergiram e de sua atuação em meios digitais. Como contexto são analisados os movimentos sociais contemporâneos, a consolidação da sociedade em rede por meio da popularização das TICs e a emergência de novas culturas organizacionais. A análise histórica desse universo é sempre vinculada a seu impacto no processo de produção das cidades, até a apresentação da situação contemporânea. Sobre a atuação nos meios digitais a pesquisa investiga por meio da mineração de dados e análise de redes, a atuação no Facebook, a partir de um estudo de caso. As investigações revelam as dinâmicas dos principais atores, como o número e frequência de eventos, o engajamento com o público, os diálogos no espaço virtual e as ações de transformação urbana. Como resultado, a pesquisa não pretende apresentar conclusões precisas e definições de conceitos, mas apontamentos que permitem uma melhor compreensão e planejamento do urbanismo contemporâneo. / This research analyzes the processes of bottom-up urbanism from the social context in which they emerged and from their presence in digital media. As context, are analyzed the contemporary social movements, the consolidation of the network society through the popularization of ICTs and the emergence of new organizational cultures. The historical analysis of this universe is always linked to its impact on the production process of cities. About the presence in the digital media the research investigates through the data mining and analysis of networks, the action in Facebook, from a case study. The investigations reveal the dynamics of the main actors, such as the number and frequency of events, engagement with the public, dialogues in virtual space and actions of urban transformation. As a result, the research does not intend to present precise conclusions and defi nitions of concepts, but notes that allow a better understanding and planning of contemporary urbanism.

Durante o século XIX e início do XX, a cidade do Rio de Janeiro passou por diversas mudanças sociais, econômicas, políticas e culturais por conta de ocorrências históricas marcantes principalmente no período oitocentista, como a vinda da família real no início do século, o crescimento econômico e as transformações políticas que se manifestaram depois da independência do país, o declínio do regime escravocrata, a ascensão da economia cafeeira e o investimento no transporte e indústrias. Tais fatores contribuíram para a transformação da configuração urbana e social da cidade carioca, emergindo, no início do século XX, uma cidade bastante diferenciada da que se apresentava no século anterior, inclusive no que se refere à habitação. Diversos destes acontecimentos, cenas urbanas e formas de morar são retratados nas obras de Machado de Assis e Lima Barreto, em meados do século XIX e início do XX respectivamente. Considerando o texto literário como representação desta cidade como fonte de pesquisa, este trabalho procura investigar quais características e elementos da cidade são presentes nas obras, bem como a maneira como os escritores retratam e incorporam à trama narrativa as alterações ocorridas na cidade carioca durante o período apontado, no que tange às mudanças socioespaciais e habitacionais. A percepção da cidade se dá de maneira distinta entre os dois autores que utilizam a ambientação e descrição de espaços (casas, chácaras, morros, espaços de lazer, comércio etc.) para composição da trama literária e a literatura como veículo de crítica a uma cidade em intensa transformação. / During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the city of Rio de Janeiro went through several social, economic, political, cultural and historical changes. Since 1808, when the royal family arrived in Brazil, the city was radically transformed, with political and economical developments - like the Declaration of Independence, the economical increase caused by coffee culture, the end of the slave trade and investment in the city urbanistic reform. These transformations led to substantial changes in the urban and housing factors of the city of Rio de Janeiro in early twentieth century. These changes are portrayed in literature, especially in the novels of Machado de Assis and Lima Barreto, during the mid-nineteenth century and earlier 20th century. Considering the literary text as the city representation as a historical source, this work investigates which features and elements of the city of Rio de Janeiro are present in the novels and the way the writers portray the changes that occurred during this period, from the sociospatial and housing perspectives. The two authors compose the literary fiction using the environment and space description (homes, farms, hills, commerce, leisure spaces) as a vehicle to criticize a city under intense transformation.

Esta tese traz a proposta de que pensar sobre o ensino de projeto requer a utilização de procedimentos, conceitos e objetivos próprios da produção da arquitetura: a forma, o olhar, o vazio, a totalidade e a identidade. Aborda-se o ensino de projeto na Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade de São Paulo hoje, e se considera que uma aproximação abrangente e conseqüente do ensino de projeto de arquitetura deva ser feita a partir da instância capaz de exprimi-lo plenamente: o aluno na cidade. O aluno como indivíduo, pessoa, com identidade e personalidade que traz em si a própria materialização desse ensino; e a cidade, espaço da sua realização, que tem no edifício da escola o elemento gerador e gerado pela cidade, e na forma de sua ocupação uma representação e expressão totalizadora desse ensino. Em primeiro lugar, após uma INTRODUÇÃO situando as circunstancias que determinaram este trabalho, faz-se uma REFLEXÃO sobre o Tempo do percurso do aluno situado no Espaço de sua realização, propondo a partir da História a perspectiva para a construção de um olhar para o projeto e, na especificidade de cada obra, o seu Método, exemplificando-o com base em um projeto profissional próprio. Permeando essa reflexão explicitam-se a partir da experiência docente as principais questões Didáticas que se apresentam no contexto do ensino, tanto do ponto de vista do processo geral de disciplinas ministradas como dos trabalhos nelas produzidos pelos alunos. Em seguida apresentam-se os elementos considerados indissociáveis e unos da AÇÃO acadêmica: o Professor e as obras de sua produção profissional, destacando as questões que remetem à atuação didática e vice-versa; os Alunos, na sua vivência dentro e fora da estrutura curricular revelada a partir de duas experiências; e a Escola, ambiente da experimentação, síntese e conjunção desses elementos, apresentada a partir de uma proposta de trabalho didático e do plano de uma disciplina. Depois, elabora-se uma PROPOSIÇÃO apresentada através de sugestões para a estrutura curricular à maneira de uma Arquitetura, cuja estrutura é o aluno, e um projeto para intervenções no espaço do aprendizado como representação e expressão das idéias de Ensino. Na primeira, a busca de uma representação formal e totalizadora da estrutura curricular; na outra, o projeto do espaço da realização do ensino e do aprendizado, que também é uma representação de caráter totalizador. A primeira, uma estrutura curricular, tendendo a uma arquitetura. A segunda, uma arquitetura, tendendo a uma estrutura de ensino. No seu encontro, o aluno. Finalmente apresenta a CONCLUSÃO, em que se relativizam os procedimentos didático-pedagógicos para o ensino de projeto, em função da perspectiva de uma inserção dos processos de aprendizado no contexto da produção da cidade, com a qual se mesclam, e nos quais se considera o aluno como sujeito, a história, como sua base, a obra do professor, como uma referência; e o edifício da escola, inserido na cidade, mais do que o lugar de sua realização, como a possibilidade de sua afirmação. / This thesis has the idea that to consider a structure for teaching project-design requires the use of procedures, concepts, and aims that are an immanent part of the production of architecture: the form, the view, the void, the wholeness, and the identity. It is about the teaching of project-design at the School of Architecture and Urbanism at the University of São Paulo nowadays, and it considers that an extensive and consequent approach to the teaching of architectural project-design has to start right from the instance that is capable of expressing it directly from its center: the student in the city. The student as an individual, a person with an identity and personality that carries the materialization of this teaching in himself, and the city, space of its realization, which has the school-building, an element generating and being generated by the city itself, and its occupation as representation and complete expression of this way of teaching. First, after an INTRODUCTION about the circumstances that determined this work, comes a REFLECTION about the Time period of the students course and the Space where its realized, proposing, based on History, a constructive view of the project, and, in the specified way of each work, its Method, exemplifying it based on a professional project. Through this reflection, the basic Didactic Questions in the context of teaching explain themselves based on the teaching experience, as well as from the point of view of the general process of the taught disciplines, as by the works produced by the students. After this are shown the elements considered as an inseparable unity of the academic ACTION: The Professor and the works of his professional production, emphasizing the questions referred to his didactic acting and vice versa, the Students, with their experiences inside and outside of the scholar structure developed from two sides, and the School, the environment of experimentation, a synthesis and conjunction of those elements, based itself on an idea of didactic work and a teaching concept. In following, a PROPOSITION is elaborated suggesting a study plan as a kind of Architecture whose structure is the student himself, and an intervention project, in the space of apprenticeship, being the representation and expression of the ideas of Teaching. For the first, the search for a formal and completing representation of the study plan, for the other, the spatial project of the realization of the teaching and learning which also is of a completing character. The first, a study plan tending to be architecture. The second, an architecture tending to be a structure of teaching. At their meeting point, the student. Finally a CONCLUSION that consider the limits of the didactic-pedagogic procedures to project-design teaching, by the insertion of learning processes in the context of city-producing, considering the student as subject, the history as his base and the work of the professor as a reference.