Cette thèse a été effectuée dans le cadre du projet européen WYSIWYD (What You Say is What You Did). Ce projet a pour but de rendre, plus naturelles, les interactions Humain-robot, notamment par le biais du langage. Le déploiement de robots compagnon et de robots de service requière que les humains et les robots puissent se comprendre mutuellement et communiquer. Les humains ont développé une codification avancée de leur comportement qui fournit la base de la transparence de la plupart de leurs actions et de leur communication. Jusqu'à présent, les robots ne partagent pas ce code de comportement et ne sont donc pas capables d'expliquer leurs propres actions aux humains. Nous savons que dans le langage parlé, il existe un lien direct entre le langage et le sens permettant à une personne qui écoute d'orienter son attention sur un aspect précis d'un événement. Ceci est particulièrement vrai en production de langage. On sait que la perception visuelle permet l'extraction des aspects de «qui a fait quoi à qui» dans la compréhension des événements sociaux. Mais dans le cadre d'interactions humaines, il existe d'autres aspects importants qui ne peuvent être déterminés uniquement à partir de l'image visuelle. L'échange d'un objet peut être interprété suivant différents points de vue, par exemple du point de vue du donateur ou de celui du preneur. Nous introduisons ainsi la notion de construal. Le construal est la manière dont une personne interprète le monde ou comprend une situation particulière. De plus, les événements sont reliés dans le temps, mais il y a des liens de causalité ainsi que des liens intentionnels qui ne peuvent pas être vus d'un point de vue uniquement visuel. Un agent exécute une action, car il sait que cette action satisfait le désir d'un autre agent. Cela peut ne pas être visible directement dans la scène visuelle. Le langage permet ainsi de préciser cette particularité : "Il vous a donné le livre parce que vous le vouliez". La première problématique que nous mettons en évidence dans ce travail est la manière dont le langage peut être utilisé pour représenter ces construals. Autrement dit, la manière dont un orateur choisit une construction grammaticale plutôt qu'une autre en fonction de son centre d'intérêt. Pour y répondre, nous avons développé un système dans lequel un modèle mental représente un événement d'action. Ce modèle est déterminé par la correspondance entre deux vecteurs abstraits : le vecteur de force exercée par l'action et le vecteur de résultat correspondant à l'effet de la force exercée. La deuxième problématique que nous étudions est comment des constructions de discours narratif peuvent être apprises grâce à un modèle de discours narratifs. Ce modèle se base sur des réseaux neuronaux de production et de compréhension de phrases existants que nous enrichissons avec des structures additionnelles permettant de représenter un contexte de discours. Nous présentons également la manière dont ce modèle peut s'intégrer dans un système cognitif global permettant de comprendre et de générer de nouvelles constructions de discours narratifs ayant une structure similaire, mais des arguments différents. Pour chacun des travaux cités précédemment, nous montrons comment ces modèles théoriques sont intégrés dans la plateforme de développement du robot humanoïde iCub. Cette thèse étudiera donc principalement deux mécanismes qui permettent d'enrichir le sens des évènements par le langage. Le travail se situe entre les neurosciences computationnelles, l'élaboration de modèles de réseaux neuronaux de compréhension et de production de discours narratifs, et la linguistique cognitive où comprendre et expliquer un sens en fonction de l'attention est crucial / This thesis takes place in the context of the European project WYSIWYD (What You Say is What You Did). The goal of this project is to provide transparency in Human-robot interactions, including by mean of language. The deployment of companion and service robots requires that humans and robots can understand each other and communicate. Humans have developed an advanced coding of their behavior that provides the basis of transparency of most of their actions and their communication. Until now, the robots do not share this code of behavior and are not able to explain their own actions to humans. We know that in spoken language, there is a direct mapping between languages and meaning allowing a listener to focus attention on a specific aspect of an event. This is particularly true in language production. Moreover, visual perception allows the extraction of the aspects of "who did what to whom" in the understanding of social events. However, in the context of human interaction, other important aspects cannot be determined only from the visual image. The exchange of an object can be interpreted from the perspective of the giver or taker. This introduces the notion of construal that is how a person interprets the world and perceive a particular situation. The events are related in time, but there are causal and intentional connexion that cannot be seen only from a visual standpoint. An agent performs an action because he knows that this action satisfies the need for another person. This may not be directly visible in the visual scene. The language allows specifying this characteristic: "He gave you the book because you like it." The first point that we demonstrate in this work is how the language can be used to represent these construals. In response, we have developed a system in which a mental model represents an action event. This model is determined by the correspondence between two abstract vectors: the force vector exerted by the action and the result vector corresponding to the effect of the applied force. The application of an attentional process selects one of the two vectors, thus generating the construal of the event. The second point that we consider in this work is how the construction of narrative discourse can be learned with a narrative discourse model. This model is based on both existing neural networks of production and comprehension of sentences that we enrich with additional structures to represent a context of discourse. We present also how this model can be integrated into an overall cognitive system for understanding and generate new constructions of narrative discourse based on similar structure, but different arguments. For each of the works mentioned above, we show how these theoretical models are integrated into the development platform of the iCub humanoid robot. This thesis will explore two main mechanisms to enrich the meaning of events through language. The work is situated between computational neuroscience, with development of neural network models of comprehension and production of narrative discourse, and cognitive linguistics where to understand and explain the meaning according to joint attention is crucial

Trauma care is the treatment of patients with injuries caused by external forces, for instance car crashes, assaults or fall accidents. These urgent patients typically arrive at the hospital’s Emergency Department, where they are treated by an interdisciplinary team of physicians and nurses, who collaborate to identify and address life-threatening injuries. In this thesis, the urgent phase of trauma care has been explored through observations of trauma calls and interviews with trauma care professionals, with the purpose of mapping the workflow and providing a basis for a discussion of IT systems within trauma radiology. The professionals, procedures and tools involved are collectively described as the initial trauma care system. There has been a focus on interaction between the units of this system, as well as on how decisions regarding treatment are made, often with the help of medical imaging. The initial trauma care system functions under significant time pressure, striving towards the well-defined objective of saving the life of the patient. To a great extent the system relies on standardized procedures, aiming for screening life-threatening injuries. The trauma team features a clear hierarchy and distinct roles, where the team leader role is considered vital for the team’s performance. Experience is valued and important for everyone, especially since the team often makes decisions, that may affect the future of the patient, based on incomplete information about the situation. Therefore, CT (computed tomography) images offer valuable decision-making support. The respondents are fairly satisfied with the current tools for viewing and manipulating radiological images. Little support for the need of improved or novel IT systems in trauma radiology is found, as is the use for 3D visualization of radiological images in this domain. Informants recognize communication failures and lacking teamwork as the major problems in trauma care. Difficulties like this may be decreased by education and training regarding these issues.

The focus of this thesis is mainly on the area of human decision making. During the decision process we are subjected to several influences, which bias our judgement. Therefore, we may be misguided towards wrong decisions. In addition, it is important that the display of distorted influence is regularly repeated with the same persons. Thus, we may assume that we are talking about a universal apparatus of the human mind. The aim of this thesis is also to identify the above-mentioned influences, and mainly to understand the nature of their origin. The knowledge resulting from the research could become important and useful tool for the reader, since the knowledge may be used for the improvement of our own decisions in both private and professional life. The research is based on interdisciplinary approaches to cognitive science. On one hand we use the functional model of mind, on the other hand we utilize a wide range of empirical data from several fields, such as psychology, behavioral economics and the sciences concerned with the brain. Using these tools, we analyze specific influences, which are considered to be important from the point of view of decision making. They are for example feelings, emotions, social influences, language, self, experience, expectations and prior forms of judgement. Based on the analysis of the influences, hypotheses about their interconnectedness are deduced. Finally, we suggest several practical methods, which should help us to improve our own decision making and help us to avoid wrong conclusions.

This diploma thesis brings an integral view at cognitive processes connected with artificial intelligence systems, and makes a comparison with the processes observed in nature, including human being. A historical background helps us to look at the whole issue from a certain point of view. The main axis of interest comes after the historical overview and includes the following: environment -- stimulations -- processing -- reflection in the cognitive system -- reaction to stimulation; I balance the approach and the limited potential of the human being against the machine (or artificial intelligence). In the last part, there are introduced two projects that have been already implemented in the inteligent transport systems, and their potential for the further expansion and development is shown here. The main emphasis is placed on the coherence between each part of this thesis and cognitive processes, and on the relation and the mutual dependence of these processes.

This thesis explores the metaphoric cyborg concept, based on the classic essay "A Cyborg Manifesto" by Donna J. Haraway, through Claudia Springer and her analysis of cyborgs in popular culture, and in relation to Judith Butler and queer theory. By extending the cyborg term to include contemporary forms of cyborgship such as our internet lives and personas, I advocate discussion of philosophical matters concering man/machine-compounds today rather than tomorrow. The main purpose is to restore the cyborg concept as a meaningful analytic and philosophic tool for studying man/machine-relations, in a world where other theories concerning nature/culture, man/machine/animal, subject/object, and similar dichotomies, partly lack a technological perspective. Hopefully, this thesis manages to connect three decades of cyborg reflections from several points of view, posing interesting questions about our dealings and feelings towards our dear friends – the machines.

I en värld där information delas på internet i en rasande takt har det blivit av allt större vikt att kunna avgöra om en webbsida är tillförlitlig eller inte. Vi gör ständigt bedömningar av webbsidor utifrån hur de ser ut, men vad är det som gör att vi väljer att lita på eller fördöma en webbsida efter bara några sekunder? Hur påverkar specifika designval upplevelsen av trovärdighet? Denna studie undersökte hur upplevelsen av trovärdighet påverkas av visuella egenskaper i en webbsidas grafiska design. Detta genom att utforma 12 versioner av en informativ webbsida, där egenskaperna kontrast, balans, grafik och text manipulerades. Varje egenskap manipulerades på tre olika sätt med hjälp av en parameter för vardera egenskap - färger för kontrast, placering av element för balans, mängd reklam för grafik och typsnitt för text. 21 deltagare blev presenterade för var och en av dessa 12 versioner under 10 sekunder. Deltagarnas uppgift var att bedöma hur trovärdig respektive version var på en skala från ett till nio. Resultatet visade att viss grad av kontrast, grafik och text påverkar upplevelsen av trovärdighet. Däremot hittades inget signifikant stöd för att varierande grad av balans påverkar upplevelsen av trovärdighet. Mer specifikt implicerar resultaten från denna studie att det är bättre att utforma en webbsida med för lite färger, för liten mängd reklam och ett för strikt typsnitt än tvärtom för att designa för trovärdighet. / In a world where information is spread rapidly on the Internet it is more important than ever to be able to determine if a website is trustworthy or not. We are constantly evaluating websites based on their appearance, but what makes us trust or condemn a website after only a few seconds? How do specific design choices affect the perception of trustworthiness? The present study investigated how the perception of trustworthiness on a website can be formed by visual properties in its graphical design. This was achieved by developing 12 versions of an informative website, where the properties contrast, balance, graphics and text were manipulated. Each property was manipulated in three different ways through one parameter  - color for contrast, position of elements for balance, amount of advertisement for graphics and typefaces for text. 21 participants were presented for each of the 12 versions during 10 seconds. Their task was to evaluate the trustworthiness of each version on a scale ranging from one to nine. The results showed that a certain degree of contrast, graphics and text have an impact on the perception of trustworthiness. Besides that, varying degrees of balance was not found to significantly affect the perception of trustworthiness. More specifically, the results suggest that it is preferable to design a website with few colors, a low amount of advertisement and a strict typeface rather than the opposite to design for trustworthiness.

The paper discusses the basics of Cognitive Science and describes the achievements of research at the field of Artificial Intelligence. / Die im Rahmen des Seminars "Language - Mind - Brain: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics" der englischen Sprachwissenschaft entstandene Arbeit befasst sich mit den Grundlagen der Kognition und diskutiert die Ergebnisse der Forschung auf dem Gebiet der Künstlichen Intelligenz.

Die vorliegende Diplomarbeit befasst sich mit dem diagnostischen Schließen bei Widersprüchen. Diagnostisches Schließen wird in Anlehnung an Johnson und Krems (2001) als sequentieller Verstehensprozess aufgefasst, bei dem ein Situationsmodell aufgebaut wird, dass die Problemlösung enthält. Es wurde eine Experimentalaufgabe aus dem Bereich der medizinischen Diagnostik konstruiert, bei der sequentiell Krankheitssymptome präsentiert wurden. Die studentischen Versuchspersonen sollten auf mögliche Ursachen schließen und eine Diagnose stellen. Erfasst wurden die Häufigkeit richtiger Lösungen sowie Ratingwerte einer Plausibilitätseinschätzung über den gesamten Schlussfolgerungsprozess hinweg. Neben widerspruchsfreien Versuchsdurchgängen wurden zwei Arten von Widersprüchen erzeugt. Zum einen Widersprüche, in denen ein Wechsel zwischen verschiedenen Klassen von Hypothesen notwendig ist, und zum anderen Widersprüche, bei denen zwischen Einzelhypothesen der gleichen Hypothesenklasse gewechselt werden soll. Erwartet wurde, dass Widersprüche schwerer zu lösen sein sollten als widerspruchsfreie Durchgänge und dass sich der Prozess des Schließens je nach Widerspruchsart unterschiedlich gestaltet. Im Vergleich der Durchgänge ließen sich die Hypothesen bestätigen. Bezüglich der beiden Widerspruchsarten wurde davon ausgegangen, dass ein Wechsel zwischen Hypothesenklassen schwieriger sein sollte, als wenn Einzelhypothesen innerhalb der gleichen Klasse geändert werden müssen. Dies konnte in der experimentellen Untersuchung nicht bestätigt werden, sondern hat sich eher gegenteilig gezeigt. Mit Hilfe des Verfahrens der Fuzzy Pattern Klassifikation, dass insbesondere die Unsicherheit und Unschärfe von Daten berücksichtigt, wurden die Ratings ausgewertet. Die Modellierung des Schlussfolgerungsprozesses speziell für die Fälle von Widersprüchen verdeutlicht die Ergebnisse.

Das Problem, eine Erklärung für eine Reihe von Beobachtungen zu finden, stellt sich in vielen alltäglichen Situationen, zum Beispiel bei sozialen Attributionsprozessen oder der klinischen Diagnose. Der dabei zugrunde liegende Erklärungsprozess wird oft als abduktives Schließen bezeichnet und kann als Verstehensprozess aufgefasst werden. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es, eine mögliche Beteiligung automatischer Prozesse beim Lösen solcher Probleme zu untersuchen. Es wird angenommen, dass mit Hilfe der Aktivierung und Hemmung von mit Beobachtungen verknüpftem Wissen eine mentale Repräsentation aufgebaut wird, die die Erklärung für die Beobachtungen darstellt. Demzufolge sollten Erklärungen, die mit gezeigten Beobachtungen kausal verknüpft sind, aktiviert, und Erklärungen, die aufgrund neuer Beobachtungen verworfen werden, gehemmt werden. Um dies zu prüfen, klassifizierten Probanden während der Lösung diagnostischer Probleme Testreize, die entweder mit möglichen, verworfenen oder für das aktuelle Problem irrelevanten Erklärungen verknüpft waren. Die Reaktionszeit und die Antwortgüte auf die Testreize wurden als Maß für die Aktivierung der damit verknüpften Erklärung verwendet. Die Ergebnisse belegen das Wirken von Aktivierungsprozessen. Hinweise auf eine Hemmung verworfener Erklärungen konnten hingegen nicht gefunden werden.

<p>Cognitive control is accomplished by a set of higher-order cognitive processes that are recruited to aid in the completion of various tasks. A popular proposed mechanism is the Dual Mechanisms of Control (Braver, Gray, & Burgess, 2007), proposing proactive and reactive mechanisms. While neuroscience studies provide evidence that these are two distinct processes, it remains unclear whether the processes are competing, or whether they can be used together. That is, are the two processes able to both be enacted to some degree? Further, whether these mechanisms can be titrated to produce a gradient-like use of control on a trial-level basis is unknown. These are the two primary pursuits of this dissertation. Experiment 1 shows the titrated pattern of control use, indicating (a) sensitivity to task demands, and (b) dynamic use of proactive and reactive control at the trial level, in a new task. Further, a novel contribution is the observation of ability to titrate the use of control. Additional experiments relate performance on this task to working memory (Experiment 2), replicate the findings in an online format (Experiment 3), and differentiate performance from distance effects commonly seen in relative judgment tasks (Experiment 4). This work has implications for the understanding of how cognitive control functions and how dynamically the use of these mechanisms can be adjusted.</p>