Division of labour is a hallmark of eusocial insects and is believed to be a major factor in their evolutionary success and ecological dominance. Division of labour can be of two kinds – reproductive division of labour where a minority of individuals are egg-layers or reproductives (kings and queens) and the majority are workers or non-reproductives involved mostly in non-reproductive tasks of the colony (workers). Kings/queens and workers are often referred to as separate castes within a social insect colony. There may be further non-reproductive division of labour within the worker caste, based on their morphology or age. In primitively eusocial organisms there is no morphological caste differentiation between the egg-layers and non-egg-layers resulting in greater flexibility in the social roles of individuals within a colony. This creates a very interesting scenario to study the mechanism of division of labour. Moreover our knowledge regarding division of labour especially non-reproductive division of labour is very limited for primitively eusocial organisms. In this thesis I have studied division of labour in a primitively eusocial wasp species, Ropalidia cyathiformis. R. cyathiformis is a tropical primitively eusocial wasp with a perennial nesting cycle. This species usually has a single dominant queen and several workers. I studied reproductive and non-reproductive division of labour, as well as the role of dominance behaviour in the regulation of both reproductive and non-reproductive activities. In addition to this I have also compared my findings with what is already known in the well-studied congeneric species, Ropalidia marginata. Reproductive division of labour To understand reproductive division of labour in R. cyathiformis, I studied queen succession, by experimentally removing the queen. When the queen was removed, one and only one individual increased her aggression and became the new queen of the colony, unchallenged by any other worker. Such a successor was referred to as a potential queen (PQ) until she lays her first egg. By removing the queen and successive PQs, I showed that there is not just one successor but a strict reproductive hierarchy of up to 3 PQs, who succeed the queen one after the other. Of many variables tested, I found that only the frequency of dominance behaviour was a significant predictor of whether or not an individual is part of the reproductive hierarchy and also of her position in the hierarchy. Dominance behaviour however does not perfectly predict the position of an individual in the reproductive hierarchy because I showed that an average of three more dominant individuals, are bypassed when an individual becomes the next queen or PQ. This was in contrast to the reproductive hierarchy in the congeneric Ropalidia marginata, where age rather than dominance behaviour was a predictor (though imperfect once again) of an individual’s position in the queue. Taken together, my results suggest that (a) these two sister species have evolved two rather different mechanisms of reproductive caste differentiation, (b) that neither of them strictly conform either to the so called “temperate” or “tropical” patterns of queen succession seen in most other species studied so far. Non-reproductive division of labour As mentioned above, non-reproductive division of labour in eusocial insects is based on either the morphology or the age of the individuals within the colony. Since there is no morphological castes present in primitively eusocial species, I focussed on the effect of age on division of labour in R. cyathiformis. I analysed the frequency as well as the probability of performance of four functionally significant tasks namely, two intranidal tasks – feed larva and build as well as two extranidal tasks – bring food and bring building material. I measured absolute as well as relative ages of the wasps. I found that there is an effect of age on division of labour. Age of first performance of the tasks indicated a clear sequence for the initiation of the tasks with intranidal tasks initiated before extranidal tasks. The frequency of task performance (FTP) and absolute age better explained the variation in the data as compared to probability of task performance (PTP) and relative age. This was in contrast to the pattern of age polyethism found in the congeneric species, Ropalidia marginata, where PTP and relative age better explains the variation in the data. This suggests a more flexible age-dependant division of labour in R. marginata and a rigid age polyethism in R cyathiformis. In addition I found that there was no clear-cut partitioning of the intranidal and extranidal tasks in R. cyathiformis, whereas in R. marginata, it has been shown that the frequency of the intranidal tasks decline with age while that of extranidal tasks increase with age. When taken together, I could say that R. marginata has a more strongly developed age polyethism as compared to R. cyathiformis. This study also shows an evolution of age polyethism with R. cyathiformis behaving more like a typical primitively eusocial species while R. marginata more like a highly eusocial species. Role of dominance behaviour in reproductive and non-reproductive division of labour When reproductive regulation in R. cyathiformis was studied, I found that queens of this species target the potential queen (PQ) by showing the maximum frequency per hour of dominance behaviour to the PQ. The PQs on the other hand seem to show the maximum amount of dominance behaviour towards newborns (wasps of age class 0-5 days). Queens seem to regulate only reproductive activities and not the non-reproductive activities as there was no difference in the frequency of both feed larva and bring food behaviour in the colony even after removing the queen. It also appears that dominance behaviour is not used to signal hunger or regulate foraging as there was no significant correlation between the frequency per hour of bring food behaviour and dominance behaviour received. Moreover the foragers do not receive more aggression than other wasps in the colony from either the queen, PQ or intranidal workers. I also found a significant positive correlation between the frequency per hour of bring food behaviour and feed larva behaviour implying that foraging might be a self-regulated process in this species. Hence in R. cyathiformis it appears that dominance behaviour is used only for regulation of reproductive division of labour and not for regulation of non-reproductive division of labour. This was in contrast to the congeneric species, R. marginata where the opposite has been shown to be true; the reproductive regulation is achieved by means of pheromones produced by the queen and work organisation follows a decentralised self-organised manner with intranidal workers signalling or regulating foragers using dominance behaviour. Comparison with Ropalidia marginata Ropalidia cyathiformis and Ropalidia marginata, although congeneric species co-existing in the same habitat, have evolved very different mechanisms for division of labour. R. marginata exhibiting features such as 1) presence of a docile queen 2) reproductive regulation by means of pheromones 3) strongly developed and flexible age polyethism 4) decentralised work organisation seem to be more similar to a highly eusocial organism than to a primitively eusocial species. R. cyathiformis on the other hand seems to exhibit several features typical to a primitively eusocial species, such as 1) presence of a dominant queen 2) reproductive regulation by physical means 3) relatively weak and rigid age polyethism 4) self-regulatory method of work organisation. Hence the two species seem to be at two different stages of evolution with R. marginata appearing to be intermediate between primitively and highly eusocial species.

Este trabalho pretende identificar as razões pelas quais as empresas de capital estrangeiro integram suas subsidiárias nas atividades de desenvolvimento de seus produtos globais (DPG). A análise foi realizada a partir de três estudos de caso em montadoras de veículos de passeio que possuem subsidiárias no Brasil; foram pesquisadas as unidades brasileiras e as matrizes dessas empresas. Os resultados apontam que a decisão sobre integrar ou não a engenharia brasileira nas atividades de DPG de uma transnacional relaciona-se à estratégia competitiva da corporação para os diferentes segmentos do mercado em que atua, aos atributos que as subsidiárias apresentam e que são considerados relevantes para a estratégia competitiva, ao relacionamento entre matriz e subsidiárias, que permite que tais atributos sejam reconhecidos e legitimados, e a ações de agentes externos à empresa que, se percebidas como contribuidoras para a estratégia competitiva, podem promover a descentralização das atividades de DPG ou, ao contrário, centralizá-las na matriz. O trabalho mostra também que a forma da divisão internacional do trabalho nas atividades de DPG está relacionada às fases do processo de desenvolvimento de produtos e à adoção de políticas de produto tais como o uso de plataformas e derivativos e o projeto modular. / This thesis aims to identify the reasons why transnational companies integrate their subsidiaries in their global product development (GPD) activities, a \"global product\" being defined as \"a product that is developed once to be produced and commercialized in different countries simultaneously\". The analysis has been conducted based on three case studies in car assemblers that have facilities in Brazil: Fiat, Volkswagen and Renault; their Brazilian units have been examined as well as their European headquarters. Literature about the explanations on the adoption of a decentralized GPD process - that is, a process that involves not only the headquarters but also the subsidiaries - affirms that, in general, decentralization occurs aiming to achieve a greater proximity with local markets and/or to search for local technologies which are not present in the headquarters (or the development center). After demonstrating that these reasons, although important ones, are not enough to explain the Brazilian automotive industry\'s case, some other, complementary rationales are proposed to justify the phenomenon of GPD decentralization towards subsidiaries. As a result, we present an explanatory model that affirms that the decision about whether to integrate or not Brazilian engineering in the GPD activities follows a rationale related to the competitive strategy of the corporation to the different market segments in which it competes; in the segments where products demand much adaptation in order to fit local market\'s requirements, decentralizing product development may signify lower costs and development time. Integration also depends on the attributes presented by the subsidiaries, as long as these attributes are considered as relevant ones to the firm\'s competitive strategy: the subsidiary\'s engineering experience, the subsidiary\'s market sensitiveness, the importance of market and the subsidiary\'s volume of production are the main attributes observed in this research. The decentralisation of engineering activities also depends on the relationship between the headquarters and the subsidiaries - which allows the attributes to be recognized and legitimized - and on the actions of external agents (as host and home governments, trade unions, universities and research centers), that may promote decentralization of GPD activities if they are perceived as contributing to the firms\' competitive strategy. Finally, the way labor is internationally divided in the GPD activities is related to the phases of the product development process and to the adoption of some product policies such as the usage of platforms and derivatives and the modular design, this one with a weaker influence.

According to the traditional gender structures the man is seen as the breadwinner and the woman as the housewife. These traditional patterns are slowly being replaced by more equal relationships and today, women are a natural part of the workforce. It is becoming increasingly common nowadays for women in relationships to have a higher income than their partners. Previous research from the United States points out that the connection between the role as family provider and masculinity is still up to date. In this study the man’s experiences about not being the breadwinner is accordingly investigated. Questions about the division of labour in the home, equality in the relationship and how the man experiences the change of the traditional gender structures is in focus. This qualitative study finds its result based on six swedish male respondents experiences concerning not being the main wage earners. The result of the study indicate that these men is actively striving towards an equal daily life as it seems to be the ideal in Sweden. The interviewed men describe that they do not attach significant importance regarding them not being the breadwinner, but shades of strategies that are used to maintain parts of the traditional masculinity can however be interpreted. Keywords: / Enligt de traditionella könsstrukturerna så ses mannen som familjeförsörjaren och kvinnan ses som hemmafrun. Dessa traditionella mönster ersätts sakta men säkert av mer jämställda relationer och idag är kvinnor en naturlig del av arbetskraften. Det blir numer allt vanligare att kvinnan i relationer har en högre inkomst än sin partner. Tidigare forskning från USA poängterar att kopplingen mellan rollen som familjeförsörjare och manlighet fortfarande är aktuell. I denna studie undersöks därmed mannens upplevelser av att inte vara den huvudsakliga inkomsttagaren. Frågor gällande arbetsfördelningen i hemmet, jämställdhet i relationen och hur mannen upplever förändringen av de traditionella könsstrukturerna står i centrum. Denna kvalitativa studie finner sitt resultat baserat på sex svenska manliga intervjupersoners upplevelser angående att inte vara den huvudsakliga inkomsttagaren. Studiens resultat tyder på att dessa män aktivt strävar efter att leva ett jämställt vardagsliv då det tycks vara idealet i Sverige. De intervjuade männen beskriver att de inte fäster någon större betydelse vid att de inte är huvudinkomsttagaren, däremot kan nyanser uttydas av att strategier trots allt används för att bibehålla delar av den traditionella manligheten.

Yes / Safe and successful surgery depends on effective teamwork between professional groups, each playing their part in a complex division of labour. This article reports the first empirical examination of how introduction of robot-assisted surgery changes the division of labour within surgical teams and impacts teamwork and patient safety. Data collection and analysis was informed by realist principles. Interviews were conducted with surgical teams across nine UK hospitals and, in a multi-site case study across four hospitals, data were collected using a range of methods, including ethnographic observation, video recording and semi-structured interviews. Our findings reveal that as the robot enables the surgeon to do more, the surgical assistant's role becomes less clearly defined. Robot-assisted surgery also introduces new tasks for the surgical assistant and scrub practitioner, in terms of communicating information to the surgeon. However, the use of robot-assisted surgery does not redistribute work in a uniform way; contextual factors of individual experience and team relationships shape changes to the division of labour. For instance, in some situations, scrub practitioners take on the role of supporting inexperienced surgical assistants. These changes in the division of labour do not persist when team members return to operations that are not robot-assisted. This study contributes to wider literature on divisions of labour in healthcare and how this is impacted by the introduction of new technologies. In particular, we emphasise the need to pay attention to often neglected micro-level contextual factors. This can highlight behaviours that can be promoted to benefit patient care.

This paper presents a quantitative study of the gendered division of labor in three nordic and three southern european countries. Using data from the European social survey round 5 about Family and Wellbeing, containing our target countries. The aim of this study is to increase knowledge about which factors affect gender equality in unpaid work at home with breadwinning women as our core focus. Previous research has found that women do the majority of work at home regardless if they have children living at home or working full time. The theoretical framework in this study is based on Hochschild. Hochschild writes about how the traditional gender code for women is to be caring, while also describing the change towards an egalitarian view of household labor and what to expect from each other as men and women.

This thesis is about the organisation, character and change of labour relations in expanding capitalist wool farming in the Cape between 1860 and 1950. It is an attempt to analyse labour in wool farming within a transnational framework, based on an expansion of capital from core to periphery of the capitalist world-economy. Wool farming in peripheries like the Cape was part of capitalist production through the link to primarily the British textile industry. This relationship enabled wool farmers to invest in their farms in sheep, fences and windmills. They thereby became agents of capital expansion in the world-economy, which was a prerequisite for a capitalist expansion. Although wool production in the Cape was initially an imperial division of labour, that relation changed during the twentieth century as Britain’s leading role as textile producer was challenged by other capitalist core countries. Capitalism as a transnational production system, based on commodity chains from periphery to core, became the most crucial structure for wool farmers in the Cape, who could increase their exports. The thesis also shows that the pre-capitalist generational division of labour among black peasants, through which farmers acquired labour, especially shepherds, was both discarded and intensified. Shepherding was intensified along with fencing during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century due to threat from jackals and lack of sufficient water supplies. Those farmers who invested in technology in the form of jackal-proof fences and windmills managed to change production from herding to rotational grazing in camps, which meant that shepherds were replaced by camp walkers, who controlled fences instead of sheep. Those farmers who did not invest were forced to exploit the pre-capitalist relations more intensively and hire shepherds in order to be able to produce and sell wool to textile manufacturers in capitalist core areas. As the young adult males disappeared from farms to the mines, the role of children and youths as shepherds became increasingly important. By the 1940s almost all the shepherds were children or youths, but they were about to be made redundant, as the number of shepherds decreased during the 1930s and 1940s.

Daraus leitet sich folgende Forschungsfrage ab: Hat die Intensität der religiösen Überzeugung einer Person Einfluss auf eine ungleiche Arbeitsteilung im Haushalt? Die Basishypothese dieses Aufsatzes besteht in Folgendem: Je religiöser sich eine befragte Person einschätzt, desto häufiger werden in einem partnerschaftlichen Haushalt als weiblich konnotierte Haushaltstätigkeiten von der Ehefrau bzw. Lebenspartnerin ausgeführt. Auf die methodischen Implikationen wird später ausführlich eingegangen. Aus der Basishypothese werden nun empirisch prüfbare Hypothesen gebildet, die weiterführend eine Grundlage für die Prüfung von Interaktionseffekten bilden. Damit soll herausgefunden werden, in welchem Umfang Religiosität mental vernetzt ist, also nachweisbare Wirkungen moderiert und damit als eine zentrale Variable in der Verarbeitung sozialer Bedingungen angesehen werden kann.

This dissertation considers how the transition from craft manufacture to mechanized glass production affected the organization of work and the consequences for the recruitment of labour. Based on gender and ethnicity, the dissertation studies the composition of the workforce, the significance of qualifications, and differences in career paths and length of stay have been investigated at Surte glassworks 1943–1978. Charles Tilly’s theory of durable inequality is applied to analyse whether primarily gender and ethnicity had any effect on the assignment of tasks and on discrimination. In conclusion, the results from Surte are compared with conditions at Kosta glassworks. Whereas Surte’s specialty was machine-made bottles, Kosta was geared to craft production of utility glass and art glass. After mechanization at Surte, machine-tenders were counted among the most qualified category, instead of the glass-blowers who had previously been in demand. Manufacture at a pace regulated by machines led to more routine chores such as inspection and packaging. At Kosta, with its focus on craft, glass-blowers still had the highest positions and had learned glass-blowing in the traditional way through practical exercise. At neither Surte nor Kosta did women have any opportunity to receive comparable training. After the Second World War there was a growing need for labour at both Surte and Kosta, and to keep production going the main alternative was foreign labour. The peak was reached in the 1960s, and of roughly 660 collectively employed workers at Surte in November 1964, almost 40% were immigrants, chiefly from Finland. Kosta at the same time, with just under 330 employees, had slightly under 10% foreign workers, mainly from Greece. Kosta attracted a number of skilled glass-workers from abroad, but the majority of immigrants there, and all those at Surte, lacked experience of glass manufacture At neither Surte nor Kosta, with their different production methods, is there any evidence of durable inequality based on ethnicity. The assignment of tasks was guided rather by the functions in demand at the companies and by the applicants’ qualifications. Internal training and career opportunities were open to all male workers, regardless of which country they came from. On the other hand, the gender division of labour at both glassworks created durable inequality for all women regardless of nationality. / <p>Projektet delfinasierat av Kulturparken Småland.</p>

This dissertation is concerned with the making of metal making. It explores how skills, knowledge, and artefacts were circulated and grounded within the Swedish metal trades during the period ca. 1730 to 1775. It also analyses how these processes were related to different ways of organising practices of work. The metal trades are referred to as comprising various forms of state-supported metal manufacturing outside the guild system. The focus is on finer metal making (finsmide), above all cutlery making. The first chapter discusses the theoretical and methodological approaches. Critical to the analysis are the terms strategies and tactics, which are used to approach the interplay of different ways of knowing and acting in everyday metal making. This is done related to a trajectorial method. The trajectories of state official Samuel Schröder and the Stockholm cutler Eric Engberg are centred, but I also explore one broader skills-trajectory: the ‘English way’ of making cutlery. Chapters 2 to 4 examine the strategic stage for metal making, focusing on the attempts made by the eighteenth-century Swedish state to order the domestic trades in line with ideas of an all-embracing division of labour. This development is investigated by discussing regulations, spatial mapping and supervision, as well as descriptions and ‘corrections’ of workshop practices. Chapters 5 to 7 highlight the interplay of strategies and tactics within a changing manufacturing ‘system’. Artisans’ journeys, the construction of workshops in Stockholm, and the introduction of piecework at provincial knife works during the 1750s and 1760s are explored. The discussion leads up to the founding of a ‘free town’ for metal-making artisans in Eskilstuna in 1771. The results of this dissertation add to Swedish research on early-modern metal making in a number of ways. Urban space and the connections between metal-making communities are highlighted. In doing this, emphasis is placed on how practices of work were shaped over time by the movements of people, artefacts, and materials. Most notably, the circulation, imitation, and local adaption of knowledge and skills within the metal trades are accentuated. These findings also connect to recent research concerned with manufacturing and knowledge-making in pre-industrial Europe.

Aim: During the last decades research has reported seemingly unjustified differences between how women and men are perceived as patients, medical students and physicians. Most studies have been performed outside Scandinavia. The overall aim of this thesis is to illustrate, analyse and discuss aspects of gender bias and gender awareness in clinical medicine, medical research and medical education, all in a Swedish setting. Material and methods: Physicians’ ways of reasoning and reflecting on different professional arenas were investigated from a gender perspective in three cross-sectional studies: A. Written answers from a national examination for 289 Swedish interns where the examinees were allocated to suggest management of a common health problem - irritable bowel syndrome - in either a male or a female paper-patient with identical case descriptions. B. Assessments from 682 physicians, in structured assessment forms, of the scientific quality of two fictive research abstracts - one with a quantitative and one with a qualitative design – where authorship was assigned to either a woman or a man. C. Answers from 303 physician teachers to a questionnaire where they, on scales, assessed the importance of gender in different professional relationships and also gave open-ended comments. Most analyses were quantitative, using chi2-tests and multivariate logistic regression as statistical methods. Differences were discussed in relation to gender theory. Qualitative method, by way of open and selective coding, was used to explore the open-ended answers in the questionnaire and to create codes from the written answers in the national exam. Results: A. There were differences in outcome for male and female cases in history taking and in proposed diagnoses, investigations and treatment, e.g. more questions about and tests for alcohol were suggested for men and more tests for thyroid function for women. Both men and women physicians contributed to the gender bias but showed different patterns. B. The quantitative abstract was judged the same regardless of the gender of the assessor or author. The qualitative abstract was not ranked as scientific as the quantitative, but as more accurate, trustworthy, relevant and interesting with a female author especially by women assessors. C. Men physicians, especially in the surgical group, expressed low awareness of gender compared to women physicians. The qualitative analysis rendered a picture of how the physicians perceive ‘gender’, problems they connect with gender and their attitudes to gender issues. Some important concepts identified were ‘inequity’, ‘difference’, ‘delicate situations’, and ‘resistance’. To get an overview and better understanding of various expressions of gender bias, a theoretical model was developed, on the basis of the findings in the qualitative analysis. The main findings of the thesis are discussed in relation to this model where equity/inequity and sameness/difference are important points of departure. Conclusions: The findings of gendered outcome in the national exam call attention to ‘knowledge-mediated gender bias’, a phenomenon implying that once knowledge of gender differences in a condition has been established this might cause gender biased assessments of individual patients in the clinical situation. Gender appears to affect scientific evaluations. This has implications for situations where research is assessed and interpreted: in medical tutoring, research guidance, peer reviewing, and in forming evaluation committees for research funding. Physician teachers seem little aware of gender as an area of competence and knowledge and tend to connect gender issues with women. Depending on how ‘difference’ and ‘equity’ are apprehended various forms of resistance to gender emerge, each with plausible bias risks. Educational programmes for faculty members, encouraging continuous reflections on gender attitudes and supporting male participation, are suggested. Besides providing a more comprehensive understanding of patients and their health problems, increased gender awareness among physicians might improve the working climate and help reduce the gendered division of labour in the medical profession.